Гурван хэмжээст (3 D үл хөдлөх хөрөнгийн талаарх ойлголт, үзэл баримтлалууд 90 ээд онысүүл үеэс эхлэн газар зохион байгуулалтын баримт бичиг болон судалгааны бүтээлүүдэдтусах болсон билээ. Өнөө цагт бид 3 D кадастрын талаар хийгдсэн судалгаа, өргөн цархүрээтэй ойлголт, шилд эг туршлагуудыг олон ном, судалгааны бүтээлүүдээс харж болно.Хэдий тийм боловч ихэнх улс орнуудад 3 D үл хөдлөх хөрөнгийн эрх зүйн зохицуулалтуудыгнарийвчлан тодорхойлж 3 D кадастрын системийг эрхлэх асуудал одоо хүртэл нарийншийдэгдэ эгүй, судлагдаагүй хэвээр байна.Энэ бүлэгт Европ, Хойд болон Латин Америк, Ойрх Дорнод, Австралийн нийт 15 өөр эрхзүйн орчин дахь 3 D үл хөдлөх хөрөнгийн үзэл баримтлалыг зохиогчдын өөрсдийнх ньүндэсний туршлагад тулгуурлан харьцуулан авч үзсэн болно. Түүнчлэн Герман, Франц,Скандинав з эрэг өөр өөр ялгаатай иргэний эрх зүйн орчин дэх 3 D кадастрын системийнжишээг авч үзсэн нь эдгээр улстай ижил төрлийн эрх зүйн систем хөгжсөн бусад орнуудад3D кадастрын системийг нэвтрүүлэхэд тус нэмэр болох буй заа. Гэхдээ эдгээр жишээ, сайнтуршлагууд нь 3 D кадастрын системийг нэвтрүүлэх, хэрэгжүүлэх гэх мэт өөр өөр үе шатандявж байгааг анхаарна биз ээ. Энэ нь 3 D үл хөдлөх хөрөнгийн үзэл баримтлал, 3 D кадастрынсистемийг нэвтрүүлэхэд тулгамдаж буй асуудлуудыг тодорхойлоход хувь нэмэр оруулахынзэрэгцээ тухайн эрх зүйн орчинд хараахан бий болоогүй байгаа бэрхшээл, асуудлуудыг

Гурван хэмжээст (3 D үл хөдлөх хөрөнгийн талаарх ойлголт, үзэл баримтлалууд 90 ээд онысүүл үеэс эхлэн газар зохион байгуулалтын баримт бичиг болон судалгааны бүтээлүүдэдтусах болсон билээ. Өнөө цагт бид 3 D кадастрын талаар хийгдсэн судалгаа, өргөн цархүрээтэй ойлголт, шилд эг туршлагуудыг олон ном, судалгааны бүтээлүүдээс харж болно.Хэдий тийм боловч ихэнх улс орнуудад 3 D үл хөдлөх хөрөнгийн эрх зүйн зохицуулалтуудыгнарийвчлан тодорхойлж 3 D кадастрын системийг эрхлэх асуудал одоо хүртэл нарийншийдэгдэ эгүй, судлагдаагүй хэвээр байна.Энэ бүлэгт Европ, Хойд болон Латин Америк, Ойрх Дорнод, Австралийн нийт 15 өөр эрхзүйн орчин дахь 3 D үл хөдлөх хөрөнгийн үзэл баримтлалыг зохиогчдын өөрсдийнх ньүндэсний туршлагад тулгуурлан харьцуулан авч үзсэн болно. Түүнчлэн Герман, Франц,Скандинав з эрэг өөр өөр ялгаатай иргэний эрх зүйн орчин дэх 3 D кадастрын системийнжишээг авч үзсэн нь эдгээр улстай ижил төрлийн эрх зүйн систем хөгжсөн бусад орнуудад3D кадастрын системийг нэвтрүүлэхэд тус нэмэр болох буй заа. Гэхдээ эдгээр жишээ, сайнтуршлагууд нь 3 D кадастрын системийг нэвтрүүлэх, хэрэгжүүлэх гэх мэт өөр өөр үе шатандявж байгааг анхаарна биз ээ. Энэ нь 3 D үл хөдлөх хөрөнгийн үзэл баримтлал, 3 D кадастрынсистемийг нэвтрүүлэхэд тулгамдаж буй асуудлуудыг тодорхойлоход хувь нэмэр оруулахынзэрэгцээ тухайн эрх зүйн орчинд хараахан бий болоогүй байгаа бэрхшээл, асуудлуудыгурьдчилж харахад илүү дөхөм болгож байна.Түүнчлэн та бүхэнд хүргэхийг зорьсон дараагийн асуудал бол тухайн улс бүрийн эрх зүйнорчин болон кадастрын систем дэх 3 D гэж тодорхойлсон кадастрын объектуудын онцлог,шинж чанаруудыг илүү тодотгон тайлбарлах юм. Мөн 3 D кадастрын системтэй улсорнуудаас э хлээд 3 D кадастрын системийг нэвтрүүлэх сонирхолгүй байгаа улс орнуудынжишээ, туршлагад дүн шинжилгээ хийж 3 D кадастрын объектын мөн чанар, үзэл баримтлал,бүртгэлийн зохицуулалтын тогтолцооны ялгааг харуулжээ. Тус бүтээлд дээр дурдсан улсорнуудын 3 D кад астрын эрх зүйн үзэл баримтлалд дүн шинжилгээ хийх замаар 2014 ондДубайд болсон 3 D кадастрын олон улсын 4 р хурлын эрх зүйн салбар хуралдааныхэлэлцүүлэгт хөндөгдсөн асуудлуудыг үргэлжлүүлсэн болно. Үүний үр дүнд 3 D үл хөдлөххөрөнгийн тухай одоо байгаа эрх зүйн тогтолцоо, үзэл баримтлал, ойлголтуудыг тоймложхөрөнгийн тухай одоо байгаа эрх зүйн тогтолцоо, үзэл баримтлал, ойлголтуудыг тоймлож тэдгээрийн ижил төстэй болон ялгаатай байдлыг тайлбарласан байна. Төгсгөлд нь цаашид тэдгээрийн ижил төстэй болон ялгаатай байдлыг тайлбарласан байна. Төгсгөлд нь цаашид хэрхэх арга замыг танилцуулж, тухайн улсын болон олон улсын хэмжээнд 3хэрхэх арга замыг танилцуулж, тухайн улсын болон олон улсын хэмжээнд 3D D кадастрын кадастрын систсистемийг нэвтрүүлэхэд хууль тогтоомжид нь ямар нэмэлт өөрчлөлт оруулах шаардлагатай емийг нэвтрүүлэхэд хууль тогтоомжид нь ямар нэмэлт өөрчлөлт оруулах шаардлагатай талаар судалгааны үндэслэл боловсруулах шаардлагыг тодорхойлжээ.талаар судалгааны үндэслэл боловсруулах шаардлагыг тодорхойлжээ.

These proceedings reflect on the content of FIG’s (International Federation of Surveyors) 11th International FIG Workshop on the Land Administration Domain Model & 3D Land Administration (LADM & 3D LA), 11-13 October 2023, Gävle, Sweden.

This paper describes the use of 3D real property formation at a major construction site in Stockholm, Sweden, project Slussen. Real property formation with complex 3D volumes and numerous real properties and associated rights, restrictions and responsibilities (RRRs) has to be shown with the real properties and RRRs in relation to each other. The present legal solutions and documentation thereof are based on analogue documentation (digitalised to pdf) and cannot be attached as e.g. dwg files. Architects and other professionals do not normally have access to the 3D real property boundaries in their 3D building models from the beginning of a project and the exact locations of boundaries are agreed upon during the formation process to achieve as usable solutions as possible.The aim of this paper is to describe the 3D property formation process when involving complex solutions securing RRRs to solve legal and planning challenges on different levels of detail. The paper focuses on the cadastral real property formation procedures using 3D property formation for constructions above and underground, as well as how they are registered in the national real property register. The paper illustrates a complex 3D property solution and adds to the understanding of the challenges of registration and visualisation of Swedish 3D real property in Stockholm, focusing on legal as well as technical experiences. This research is a document study based on an analysis of the property formation and planning documentation and processes of a cadastral procedure conducted in the Slussen project, as well as associated documentation from other agencies, and by interviewing key persons involved in the project. The paper illustrates the need for a national cadastral index map in three dimensions to be used in the formal real property formation procedures, to achieve a comprehensible and correct representation and visualisation of 3D real properties and RRRs in Sweden. The results can be used as input in coming property formations of a similar kind, as well as a component for the development of a national three-dimensional cadastral index map. Furthermore, the results can be an input to capacity building for the future use of 3D models as part of the formal cadastral property formation procedure.

3D property formation has become an important solution to provide a more comprehensive and accurate representation of the property's physical characteristics than traditional 2D property formation. Despite the numerous benefits of the 3D property formation, there is a need for more detailed descriptions of 3D cadastral data delivery between the involved actors to ensure efficient and effective collaboration. In particular, the practical difficulties are when/what related 3D cadastral information and models should be exchanged and stored from/to whom. Therefore, to address these issues, we propose a lifecycle 3D property formation process with four phases by designing an IDM process, which is an international open BIM process standard. In the purpose of forming a Swedish lifecycle 3D property formation process, the IDM process has been applied through organizational, legal and technical aspects, including identifying actors and their roles and values, gathering 3D property formation requirements, defining the data exchange requirements and designing the process map. Moreover, a case study was used to specify the Swedish lifecycle 3D property formation process and information delivery between stakeholders in the IDM. The aim is to facilitate a standardized and unambiguous digital 3D property formation procedure on a national level in order to improve and enhance the digital Swedish Cadastral and Land Administration Systems, but the process is quite generic and could also be applied in other countries.

The boundary of real property is the fundamental element for securing rights attached to land. Countries, even with a long-standing cadastral tradition, often face the challenge of interpreting the course of a parcel boundary on the ground based on the available evidence, as data quality is very heterogeneous. Various cadastral principles and procedures have been developed for the determination of parcel boundaries in the field, which may also be associated with resolving boundary disputes. This article documents and compares the principles and procedures applied in the determination of property boundaries in selected civil law countries based on a novel conceptual model developed for that purpose. The notion of ‘boundary determination’ used in this article refers to demarcating and surveying land parcel boundaries during the initial cadastral survey and cadastral update procedures. The selected countries include Denmark and Sweden, which apply Nordic civil law; Slovenia and Turkey, which apply German civil law; and Spain, which applies Napoleonic civil law. The demarcation principles and processes applied in the different cadastral systems, the parties involved, and the evidence taken into consideration in these processes are described and compared. The main aim is to contribute to the documentation of the reasoning applied to the property boundary determination in the selected civil law countries. 

Cadastral boundaries are key components for ordering the ownership of real property by dividing it into territories. This study analyses the similarities and differences in marking cadastral boundaries in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden. A case study was conducted by examining legislations, ordinances, guidelines, and other instructions. These are issued by both the respective national governments, and associated agencies responsible for real property formation and demarcation of boundaries, such as, the national cadastral authorities. We describe, analyse, and discuss the visual division between properties, boundary marks, natural features used as real property boundaries, the information on boundaries in national registers, prescriptive rights, and the localization of boundaries in each country. The outcome of the study shows that there are many similarities between the four countries, but also differences. As an example, the materials used for demarcation differ between each country. Furthermore, the party performing the cadastral procedures range from governmental officials to licenced private surveyors. Finally, differences were noted in whether a real property boundary following a river or stream when created will change position if the river or stream changes course over time. 

The formation and alteration of real property and rights, restrictions and responsibilities are important parts of land administration. Research on the distribution of publications in the three-dimensional (3D) cadastral domain has been in focus as a specialised part of real property research during the last decades. A number of literature surveys on research trends in the domain show a growing number of publications during the last decades. The number of publications have increased considerably within a range of topics, classified into legal, technical, registration and organisational categories of 3D property. The purpose of the research presented here is to contribute to these analyses of the number and thematic distribution of the 3D cadastral domain literature by analysing three aspects: 1) To add to the recent study by including 3D cadastre publications published during 2021 (Paasch and Paulsson, 2021b, Paasch and Paulsson, 2021a); 2) To briefly analyse the classification of 3D cadastre research in technical programmes and proceedings of major conferences focussing, in total or in part, on 3D cadastre. 3) The results are used to contribute to the discussion regarding if the 3D cadastral domain is too diverse today to talk about a single 3D cadastral domain. An input to the discussion of what constitutes a domain is provided from an analysis of another land administration research topic that is often addressed in relation to 3D real property research; the international standard for land administration, the Land Administration Domain Model, LADM, ISO 19152.

This paper focuses on experiences concerning a project aiming at visualisation of three dimensional (3D) property units in Stockholm, Sweden. The Swedish national registration system, the national real property register, includes a textual description as well as a two dimensional map, normally consisting of a scan of the legal map document produced during the property formation process. Today, a 3D-pdf or a BIM model cannot be part of the formal property formation decision and documentation. It can thus be difficult to illustrate 3D real property on just a two-dimensional map.The paper describes a project carried out by Stockholm municipality to visualise 3D property unit volumes within the municipality by combining them with existing 3D city models (including building- and terrain models). The aim is to show and analyse the problems and challenges identified in the project by illustrating what has been done and how the use of 3D real property information can be further developed in the future.The method used in this research is a document study of the project focusing on representation in the digital cadastral index map for 3D real property units as part of the national real property register, as well as associated documentation from other agencies, and by interviewing key persons involved in the project.The project created a local 3D model which is stored in the municipality´s own internal database. Some information was retrieved from the national real property register, such as information on height (lowest and highest) and the horizontal expansion of the real property. Data was then processed and analysed using Feature Manipulation Engine (FME) to create 3D property volumes. The project used in-house software and data as much as possible. The volumes were stored in the municipal database. The 3D volumes could be used as a supplement to the information stored in the national real property register and the cadastral dossiers. The results can be used as a component for the development of a national three-dimensional cadastral index map as well as for enabling 3Dmodels as part of the formal cadastral property formation procedure.