In the light of EU’s requirements to achieve a major cut in energy use by 2050, Sweden has the same target. The built environment must by 2020 reduce energy use by 20 and 50 % by 2050. The size of the future building stock will naturally increase and regardless of how energy efficient future buildings will be, the energy performance of the old stock must be improved in order to reach those goals. In major renovation projects involving multifamily buildings in large residential areas in the cities, 50 % reduction can be achieved. This is cost-effective and profitable even if the rent is increased.

Gävleborg is a sparse region in the North, with few cities. Multifamily buildings are generally much smaller than in large cities and owners are reluctant to impose changes that increase rents due to the housing situation in the region. In consequence, the Regional Council and the University of Gävle set out to assess the potential and feasibility of reducing energy use and carbon dioxide emissions in this region’s multifamily buildings. Eleven real buildings were investigated, each having various ownership forms, different technical attributes and heating sources. Energy audits and measurements were conducted to assess the condition of each building. Performances of the buildings and proposed improvements were simulated with building energy simulation programs, whilst life cycle cost analyses were conducted to study viability. Carbon dioxide emission (CO₂) reductions were estimated for each improvement.

Based on the results, a concluding discussion is made on whether or not some myths on energy use and retrofitting are true. The following is concluded: It is possible to reach a 50 % reduction, but it is not economical with the costs involved and with today’s energy prices and moderate price increase over time.

Retrofitting or improvements made in the building’s services systems (HVAC) are more economical than actions taken to improve performance of building by constructions. HVAC improvements give about 20 % reduction in energy use. However, mechanical ventilation systems with heat recuperation are not economical, though these may or may not substantially reduce use of thermal energy.

Solar energy is, despite the latitude of the region, economically viable—especially PV solar energy. Photovoltaic panels (PVs) are becoming viable—the combination of PVs and district heating is beneficial since saving electricity is more important than thermal energy in district-heated areas.

The objective of the study is to analyse the conditions for connection of residential buildings in heat sparse areas to district heating systems in order to increase electricity production in municipal combined heat and power plants. The European electricity market has been assumed to be fully deregulated. The relation between connection of heat sparse areas, increased electricity and heat production as well as electricity prices, fuel prices and emissions rights is investigated. The results of the study show that there is potential to expand the district heating market to areas with lower heat concentrations in the cities of Gavle, Sandviken and Borlange in Sweden, with both economic and environmental benefits. The expansion provides a substantial heat demand of approximately 181 GWh/year, which results in an electricity power production of approximately 43 GWh/year. Since the detached and stand-alone houses in the studied heat sparse areas have been heated either by oil boiler or by direct electricity, connection to district heating also provides a substantial reduction in emissions of CO(2). The largest reductions in CO(2) emissions are found to be 211 ktonnes/year assuming coal-fired condensing power as marginal electricity production. Connection of heat sparse areas to district heating decrease the system costs and provide a profitability by approximately 22 million EURO/year for the studied municipalities if the price of electricity is at a European level, i.e. 110 EURO/MWh. Sensitivity analysis shows, among other things, that a strong relation exists between the price of electricity and the profitability of connecting heat sparse areas to district heating systems.

The aim of this study is to investigate the potential use of natural gas for heat and power production for the municipality of Linkoping, Norrkoping and Finspang in the County of Ostergotland, Sweden. The results of the study revealed that these three municipalities with the present heating demand can convert 2030 GWh/year of the present fuel mixed to natural gas. The expansion of natural gas provides the possibility to increase the electricity generation with approximately 800 GWh annually in the County of Ostergotland. The global emissions of CO(2) reduce also by approximately 490 ktonne/year by assuming the coal condensing power plant as the marginal power plant. The total system cost decreases by 76 Mkr/year with the present electricity price which varies between 432 and 173 SEK/MWh and with 248 Mkr/year if the present electricity price increases to 37% which is approximately corresponding to European electricity prices. Sensitivity analysis is done with respect to the different factors such as price of electricity, natural gas, etc. The findings show that increased price of electricity and increased district heating demand increases the profitability to convert to natural gas using CHP plant. (C) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

In this study, confluent jets ventilation (CJV) supply devices with three different nozzle arrays (1 × 19, 2 × 19, 3 × 19) were investigated both numerically and experimentally at two different airflow and supply air temperature set-ups. The performance of the CJV supply devices was investigated concerning thermal comfort, indoor air quality (IAQ), and heat removal effectiveness in a conference room environment. A comparison between the experimental and numerical results showed that the v2−f model had the best agreement out of the investigated turbulence models. The numerical results showed that the size of the array had a great impact both on near-field development and on the conditions in the occupied zone. A larger array with multiple rows and a lower momentum conserved the inlet temperature and the mean age of the air better than a single-row array with a higher momentum. A larger array with multiple rows had a higher IAQ and a greater heat removal effectiveness in the occupied zone because the larger array conserved the mean age of air better and the buoyancy driven flow was slightly better at removing the heat. Because of the lower inlet velocities, they also had lower velocities at ankle level, which decreased the risk of draft and thermal discomfort.

This  parametric study aims to predict the  performance of confluent jets ventilation (CJV) with variable air  volume (VAV) from four  CJV  design parameters. A  combination of  computational fluid dynamics (CFD), and response surface method (RSM) has  been used to  predict the  energy efficiency, thermal comfort and  IAQ  for  the  four  expected vital  design variables, i.e.,  heat load (XH),  number of  nozzles (XN),  airflow rate  (XQ) and  supply temperature (XTS).  The  RSM was  used to  generate a  quad-ratic  equation for  the  response variables exhaust temperature (TE),  sup-ply  temperature (TP),  PMV, DR, eT and  ACE. The  RSM  shows that  the  TE, TP and PMV were independent of the number of nozzles. The proposed equations were used to  generate setpoints optimized for  thermal com-fort  (PMV) for  summer, spring and  winter cases with different CLO  fac-tors  and  different TS under a  scenario where the  heat load varied between 10-30W/m2.  TE was  used as  setpoint to  regulate the  airflow rate  to  keep the  PMV values close to  zero. The  results show that  by adapting the TS to the CLO factor both thermal comfort and the energy efficiency can  be  improved. Further energy reduction can  be  gained by downregulating the airflow rate to keep the TP at a fixed setpoint when the  heat load is  decreased. This  means that  a  CJV  can  effectively be combined with VAV  to  improve environmental performance with good thermal comfort (-0.5<PMV <0.5,  DR <20%), above average IAQ (ACE = 106%) and  with a  higher heat removal efficiency (eT = 110%) than conventional mixing ventilation

Between 1990 and 2006 the energy use by ventilation systems in Swedish schools doubled. This is explained by high airflows in schools because of the high occupant density. Studies show that 87% of Swedish schools use constant air volume (CAV), and it is estimated that a change to variable air volume (VAV) could save 0.12-0.33 TWh (4.1*10(12) - 1.1*10(13) Btu) per year. Therefore the aim of this study is to investigate whether it is possible to replace displacement ventilation (DV) with mixing ventilation (MV) to create a comfortable indoor climate in a typical classroom and at the same time decrease the energy use by using VAV and Low Pressure Drop Ceiling Supply Device (LPDCSD). The study used two LPDCSDs which consist of circular channels with 190/228 round jets placed in an interlocking pattern, with a horizontal one/two-way-direction. The field study was carried out in a school which is intended to be extensively renovated. The school currently has DV and CAV. The study was carried out by installing MV with LPDCSD in one of the typical classrooms. Several different air-flow rates were investigated using tracer-gas technology to measure the local mean age of the air in the occupied zone. Simultaneously, thermal comfort and vertical temperature gradients were measured in the room. The results show nearly uniform distribution of the local mean age of air in the occupied zone, even in the cases of relatively low air-flow rates. Since the mixing of air is more or less the same in the entire occupied zone VAV can be used to reduce air-flow rate based on the desired CO2-level. Because of the number of students in each classroom and the fact that changes in air-flow rates have no significant effect on the degree of mixing, it is possible to reduce the air-flow rates for extended periods of time. Finally, since the LPDCSD has a lower pressure-drop than the currently used supply devices and it is possible to use VAV to lower the airflows in cases with reduced heat loads, it is possible to significantly reduce the energy usage in the school while maintaining the IAQ, increasing the thermal comfort and the available floor area of the occupied zone.

In developed countries, heating, ventilation, air conditioning (HVAC) systems account for more than 10% of national energy use. The primary function of a HVAC system is to create proper indoor environment. A number of ventilation strategies have been developed to minimize HVAC systems’ energy use whilst still maintaining a good indoor environment. Among these strategies are confluent jet ventilation and variable air volume. In this study, an air supply device with a novel nozzle design that uses both of the above-mentioned strategies was investigated both experimentally and numerically at three different airflow rates. The results from the numerical investigation using the SST k - ω turbulence model regarding velocities and flow patterns are validated by experimental data carried out by Laser Doppler Anemometry. The results from both studies show that the flow pattern and velocity in each nozzle is directly dependent on the total airflow rate. However, the flow pattern does not vary between the three different airflow rates. The numerical investigation shows that velocity profiles for each nozzle have the same pattern regardless of the airflow rate, but the magnitude of the velocity profile increases as the airflow increases. Thus, a supply device of this kind could be used for variable air volume and produce confluent jets for the airflow rates investigated.

The performance of three different confluent jets ventilation (CJV) supply devices was evaluated in a classroom environment concerning thermal comfort, indoor air quality (IAQ) and energy efficiency. The CJV supply devices have the acronyms: high-momentum confluent jets (HMCJ), low-momentum confluent jets (LMCJ) and low-momentum confluent jets modified by varying airflow direction (LMCJ-M). A mixing ventilation (MV) slot jet (SJ) supply device was used as a benchmark. Comparisons were made with identical set-up conditions in five cases with different supply temperatures (TS) (16–18 °C), airflow rates (2.2–6.3 ACH) and heat loads (17–47 W/m2). Performances were evaluated based on DR (draft rating), PMV (predicted mean vote), ACE (air change effectiveness) and heat removal effectiveness (HRE). The results show that CJV had higher HRE and IAQ than MV and LMCJ/LMCJ-M had higher ACE than HMCJ. The main effects of lower Ts were higher velocities, DR (HMCJ particularly) and HRE in the occupied zone as well as lower temperatures and PMV-values. HMCJ and LMCJ produce MV conditions at lower airflow rates (<4.2 ACH) and non-uniform conditions at higher airflow rates. LMCJ-M had 7% higher HRE than the other CJV supply devices and produced non-uniform conditions at lower airflow rates (<3.3 ACH). The non-uniform conditions resulted in LMCJ-M having the highest energy efficiency of all devices.

A methodology to obtain the directional pressure loss coefficients in a porous media model of an electromagnetically compatible screen of a radio base station model is presented. The directional loss coefficients of this compact model are validated against a detailed computational fluid dynamics model not only by comparing the total pressure drop, but also by evaluating the flow pattern after the screen. The detailed model was validated in an earlier article by the authors. A parametric study is conducted for 174 cases. Seven parameters were investigated: velocity, inlet height, screen porosity, printed circuit board (PCB) thickness, inlet-screen gap, distance between two PCBs and screen thickness. Based on the compact model parametric study, two correlations for the directional loss coefficients are developed as a function of the Reynolds number and the above geometrical parameters. The average disagreement between the compact model that uses the directional loss coefficients from the correlations and the detailed model was of 3% for the prediction of the total pressure drop and less than 6.5% and 9.5% for two coefficients that accurately characterize the flow pattern.

The objective of this paper is to make a parametric study of the hydraulic resistance and flow pattern of the flow after an electromagnetic compatibility screen and between two printed circuit boards (PCBs) in a model of a 90 degrees subrack cooling architecture. The parametric study is carried out using a detailed 3-D model of a PCB slot. The detailed model was experimentally validated in a previous paper by the authors. Seven parameters were investigated: velocity, inlet height, screen porosity, PCB thickness, distance between two PCBs, inlet-screen gap and screen thickness. A correlation for the static and dynamic pressure drop, the percentage of dimensionless wetted area, A(omega)*, and the RMS* factor (a function of the How uniformity along the PCB) after the screen is reported as a function of six geometrical dimensionless parameters and the Reynolds number. The correlations, that are based on 174 three dimensional simulations, yield good results for the total pressure drop, in which the values are predicted within the interval of +/- 15%. For the, A(omega)*, all the predicted values are within the interval of +/- 22% of the observed values. Finally, for the RMS* factor, the majority of the values also have a disagreement of less than 20% of the observed values. These last two parameters are believed to provide a correct insight about the flow pattern after the screen.

The objective of this paper is to perform an experimental as well as CFD investigations of the conjugate heat transfer problem in a sub-rack slot model. A steady-state three-dimensional detailed model, which serves as the most accurate representation of the model, was used in order to evaluate the details of the airflow paths and temperature field. A general model that covers a considerable range of velocities, screen porosities and heat fluxes was validated experimentally by wind tunnel measurements. The result shows that the RNG k-ε model used with correct y+ and mesh strategy accurately predicts the temperature field. The average temperature deviation at several locations is less than 4% compared to experimental data. The influence of the velocity, screen porosity, heat flux and presence of the EMC screen on the PCB temperature field is commented. © 2007 R.T. Edwards, Inc.

12.9% of the energy use in the EU originates from the commercial and public sector. It has therefore become a priority to optimize energy efficiency in these buildings. The purpose of this study has been to explore how energy demand in a new office building is affected by different internal heat gains, location, orientation, and façade design, and also to see how different indicators can change perspective on energy efficiency. The study was performed with simulations in IDA-ICE with different façade design and changes in internal heat gains (IHG), orientation, and location. Energy demand was then compared to two different indicators. Using a façade designed to lower solar heat gains had little effect on energy demand in the north of Sweden, but slightly more effect further south. The amount of internal heat gains had significant effect on energy demand. Making deeper studies on design and internal heat gains should therefore be prioritized in the beginning of new building projects so the most energy-efficient design can be chosen. When the indicator kWh/m² was used, the cases with low internal heat gains were perceived as the most energy efficient, while when kWh/(m² × hpers) (hpers = hours of use) was used, the cases with high occupancy and low electricity use were considered to be the most energy efficient. Therefore, revising the standardized indicator is of great importance.

Building energy simulation (BES) models rely on a variety of different input data, and the more accurate the input data are, the more accurate the model will be in predicting energy use. The objective of this paper is to show a method for obtaining higher accuracy in building energy simulations of existing buildings by combining time diaries with data from logged measurements, and also to show that more variety is needed in template values of user input data in different kinds of buildings. The case studied in this article is a retirement home in Linköping, Sweden. Results from time diaries and interviews were combined with logged measurements of electricity, temperature, and CO2 levels to create detailed occupant behavior schedules for use in BES models. Two BES models were compared, one with highly detailed schedules of occupancy, electricity use, and airing, and one using standardized input data of occupant behavior. The largest differences between the models could be seen in energy losses due to airing and in household electricity use, where the one with standardized user input data had a higher amount of electricity use and less losses due to airing of 39% and 99%, respectively. Time diaries and interviews, together with logged measurements, can be great tools to detect behavior that affects energy use in buildings. They can also be used to create detailed schedules and behavioral models, and to help develop standardized user input data for more types of buildings. This will help improve the accuracy of BES models so the energy efficiency gap can be reduced. 

A micro/macro-level approach (MMLA) has been proposed which makes it possible for HVAC engineers to easily study the effect of diffuser characteristics and diffuser placement on thermal comfort and indoor air quality. In this article the MMLA has been used to predict the flow and thermal behavior of the air in the near-zone of a complex low-velocity diffuser. A series of experiment has been carried out to validate the numerical predictions in order to ensure that simulations can be used with confidence to predict indoor airflow. The predictions have been performed by means of steady Reynolds Stress Model (RSM) and the results have good agreement both qualitatively and quantitatively with measurements. However, measurements indicated that the diffusion of the velocity and temperature was to some extent under-predicted by the RSM, which might be related to high instability of the airflow close to the diffuser. This effect might be captured by employing unsteady RSM. The present study also shows the importance of detailed inlet supply modeling in the accuracy of indoor air prediction.

The intention of this paper was to demonstrate the principle and usefulness of computed tomography for concentration field measurements. Radial extinction coefficient profiles have been reconstructed using the LTD approach in the transition region of an isothermal jet of air at Reynolds number of 2 600. Reconstructed profiles were compared against velocity profiles at axial distances ranging from 2 to 20 nozzle diameters downstream. Results indicate that the width parameter of the reconstructed scalar distribution is around 23 % larger than the velocity distribution for distances between 10 and 20 nozzle diameters downstream. This finding is in good agreement with the results of other investigators. This technique has evidently yielded an accurate description of the scalar field of the round isothermal free jet.

The quality of the reconstructions is very promising considering the relatively few measurement data, projection angles and low pixel resolution used in this study.

Ccomputed tomography is superior for monitoring chemical concentrations over larger areas (whole room) when PMS and PLIF are unfeasible.

The near zone of supply air diffusers is very critical for the indoor climate. Complaints of draft are often associated with low-velocity diffusers in displacement ventilation because the air is discharged directly into the occupied zone. Today, the knowledge of the near zone of these air supply diffusers is insufficient, causing an increased need for better measuring methods and representation of the occupied zone.

A whole-field measuring technique has been developed by the authors for visualization of air temperatures and airflow patterns over a large cross-section. In this particular whole-field method, air temperatures are measured with an infrared camera and a measuring screen placed in the airflow. The technique is applicable to most laboratory and field test environments. It offers several advantages over traditional techniques; for example, it can record real-time images within large areas and capture transient events.

The purpose of this study was to conduct a parameter and error analysis of the proposed whole-field measuring method applied to a flow from a low-velocity diffuser in displacement ventilation. A model of the energy balance, for a solid measuring screen, was used for analyzing the influence of different parameters on the accuracy of the method. The analysis was performed with respect to the convective heat transfer coefficient, emissivity, screen temperature and surrounding surface temperatures.

Theoretically, the temperature difference between the screen and the ambient air was found to be 0.2–2.4 °C for the specific delimitation in the investigation. However, after applying correction the maximum uncertainty of the predicted air temperature was found to vary between 0.62 and 0.98 °C, due to uncertainties in estimating parameters used in the correction. The maximum uncertainty can be reduced to a great extent by estimating the convective heat transfer coefficient more accurately and using a screen with rather low emissivity.

The aim of this study was to compare ventilation performance of four different air supply devices in an office environment with respect to thermal comfort, ventilation efficiency and energy-saving potential, by performing numerical simulations. The devices have the acronyms: Mixing supply device (MSD), Wall confluent jets supply device (WCJSD), Impinging jet supply device (IJSD) and Displacement supply device (DSD). Comparisons were made under identical set-up conditions, as well as at the same occupied zone temperature of about 24.2°C achieved by adding different heat loads and using different air-flow rates. Energy-saving potential was addressed based on the air-flow rate and the related fan power required for obtaining a similar occupied zone temperature for each device. Results showed that the WCJSD and IJSD could provide an acceptable thermal environment while removing excess heat more efficiently than the MSD, as it combined the positive effects of both mixing and stratification principles. This benefit also meant that this devices required less fan power than the MSD for obtaining equivalent occupant zone temperature. The DSD showed a superior performance on heat removal, air exchange efficiency and energy saving to all other devices, but it had difficulties in providing acceptable vertical temperature gradient between the ankle and neck levels for a standing person. 

The objective of this study is to compare the performance of different k-ε models, i.e. the Standard k-ε, the Renormalization Group (RNG) k-ε, and the Realizable k-ε, with a two-layer model for the prediction of the mean velocity field and the temperature pattern from a newly designed impinging jet supply device for ventilation of an office room. The numerical predictions are validated against the detailed experimental measurements.

The experimental investigation was performed in a test room with the dimensions 4.2×3.6×2.5 m, as a mock-up of a single-person office. Detailed velocity and temperature field measurements including the comfort zone and the jet developing region along the floor were carried out. The in-house made single-sensor hot-wire probe and the thermocouple are measuring instruments used to investigate the mean velocity, turbulence intensity and temperature. The boundary conditions for Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) study are obtained from the same set-up measurement.

The results mainly consist of the flow field presentation, i.e., the velocity and temperature profiles in the comfort zone and the jet developing region along the floor. The comparisons between the results from the three versions of the k-ε models and measurements show generally satisfactory agreement, and better consistency is observed at the free jet region and the wall jet region that farther from the impingement zone. Among the three tested turbulence models, RNG shows the best overall performance.

Impinging jet ventilation (IN) has been proposed to achieve an effective ventilation of an occupied zone in office and industrial buildings. For IJV systems, draught discomfort is the issue of most concern since it supplies cooled air directly to the occupied zone. This study investigated a number of factors influencing draught discomfort and temperature stratification in an office environment equipped with IJV. The factors considered were: shape of air supply device, discharge height, supply airflow rate and supply air temperature. The Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was used to identify the level of the significance of the parameters studied, as well as to develop the predictive models for the local thermal discomfort. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) was employed to perform a set of required studies, and each simulation condition was determined by the Box-Behnken design (BBD) method. The results indicated that at a low discharge height, the shape of air supply device had a major impact on the flow pattern in the vicinity of the supply device because of the footprint from impinging jet, which consequently affected the draught risk level in the occupied zone. A square-shaped air supply device was found to result in lower overall draught discomfort than rectangular and semi-elliptic shapes. The RSM analysis revealed that the supply airflow rate had a significant impact on the draught discomfort, while the shape of air supply device and discharge height had moderate effects. The temperature stratification in the occupied zone was mostly influenced by the supply air temperature within the range studied.

This paper presents the flow and temperature field within an office using impinging jet ventilation (IJV) under different heat loads ranging from 17 to 65 W per square meter floor area. The measurement was carried out in a full-scale test room to verify the reliability of three turbulence models, i.e., the RNG k-epsilon, SST k-omega and (nu(2)) over bar - f models. It is found that all the tested models show good agreements with measurements, while the (nu(2)) over bar - f model shows the best performance, especially on the overall temperature prediction. The (nu(2)) over bar - f model is used further to investigate a number of important factors influencing the performance of the IJV. The considered parameters are: cooling effect of chilled ceiling, external heat load as well as its position, number of occupants and supplied air conditions. The interaction effect of chilled ceiling and heat sources results in a complex flow phenomenon but with a notable feature of air circulation. The appearance and strength of the air circulation mainly depends on the external heat load on window and number of occupants. It is found that with higher external heat load on window (384 W and 526 W), the air circulation has a strong tendency towards the side wall in the opposite direction to occupant, while with lower power on window (200 W) the air circulation has a strong tendency in the center of the room and extends to a larger area. When two occupants are present, two swirling zones are formed in the upper region. The effects of air circulation consequently alter the temperature field and the level of local thermal comfort.

The impinging jet concept has been proposed as a new ventilation strategy for use in office and industrial buildings. The present paper reports the mean flow field behavior of an isothermal turbulent impinging jet in a room. The detailed experimental study is carried out to validate the numerical simulations, and the predictions are performed by means of the RNG k-ε and SST k-ω model. The comparisons between the predictive results and the experimental data reveal that both of the tested turbulence models are capable of capturing the main qualitative flow features satisfactorily. It is found that the predictions from the RNG k-ε model predicts slightly better of the maximum velocity decay as jet approaching the floor, while the SST k-ω model accords slightly better in the region close to the impingement zone.

Another important perspective of this study is to investigate the influence of different flow and configuration parameters such as jet discharge height, diffuser geometry, supply airflow rate and confinement from the surrounding environment on the impinging jet flow field with the validated model. The obtained data are presented in terms of the jet dimensionless velocity distribution, maximum velocity decay and spreading rate along the centerline of the floor. The comparative results demonstrate that all the investigated parameters have certain effects on the studied flow features, and the diffuser geometry is found to have the most appreciable impact, while the supply airflow rate is found to have marginal influence within the moderate flow range. 

Insulating building envelopes is crucial for maintaining indoor thermal comfort, particularlyin large-space enclosures like greenhouses having transparent envelopes. Transparent envelopesallow natural light but challenge temperature regulation due to their low thermal mass and highU-values, which enable significant heat transfer between indoor and outdoor environments. This fieldstudy aims to experimentally investigate whether warm wall confluent jets (WCJs) can maintain therequired indoor climate conditions in a greenhouse exposed to dynamic meteorological conditions inwinter. It analyzed the impact of the airflow rate, number of nozzle rows, and room air temperaturesetpoint on WCJ heating performance on the ceiling, external wall, and room air. Measurementswere performed with thermocouples and constant current anemometers, and the response surfacemethodology evaluated the effect of design variables on WCJ flow, thermal behavior, and the indoorenvironment. The results show that WCJs provided recommended air velocities and temperaturesindoors, with the airflow rate having the strongest effect on flow and thermal behavior, while thenumber of nozzle rows had a moderate effect. This study developed response surface models relatedto room air temperature, ceiling surface temperature, external wall temperature, and supply airtemperature. Supply temperatures between 27 ◦C and 40 ◦C suggest using low-exergy heat sources,like industrial waste heat, to sustain greenhouse operations during winter.

The study aimed to explore the effects of inlet air temperature, outdoor air temperature, inlet bulk velocity, and the number of nozzles on wall confluent jets (WCJ) propagating along an external cold wall in a large space enclosure such as a greenhouse. A combination of experimental study and Response surface methodology has been used to predict the flow and thermal behavior of the WCJ for the studied cases. Box-Behnken design was used to determine the case matrix for four of the above-mentioned vital variables for non-isothermal cases. The experimental study employed constant current anemometers to measure the velocity and temperature of the WCJ. Results showed that the WCJ attached to the wall under both isothermal and non-isothermal conditions. This flow behavior suggests that the WCJ can be used to heat the external facades of large-space enclosures. All the stated variables were critical to the decay factor and decay rate of maximum velocity, albeit at varying levels. The velocity decayed faster with an increase in the inlet bulk velocity and outdoor air temperature. It also decayed faster as the number of nozzles and inlet air temperature decreased. The external wall surface temperature and the wall-heating effect increased as the momentum of the jet increased. The surface temperature on the external wall was most influenced by the inlet air temperature and least by the number of nozzles. Correlations of the second-order polynomial for the Response surface models that estimate the rate of velocity decay and temperature on the external wall were obtained.

A parametrical investigation has been carried out to explore the velocity and temperature behaviour of wall confluent jets (WCJ) when used to heat and ventilate a test room, which mimics a greenhouse. This study assessed how the outdoor air temperature and supply air temperature affect the velocity and temperature profiles of the WCJ. The study also evaluated how WCJ can be used to eliminate film-wise condensation on greenhouse enclosure surfaces. Constant current anemometers (CCA) and T-type thermocouples were used to measure air velocity and temperature of the WCJ, air and surface temperature in the cooling chamber and test room. This study found that the supply air temperature affects the magnitude of the WCJ’s temperature in each region but the pattern (shape) of the dimensionless temperature is unaffected. The study also showed that both magnitude and pattern of the dimensionless temperature profiles are unaffected by the outdoor air temperature in all regions of the WCJ. The dimensionless velocity profiles under isothermal and non-isothermal were similar, but the magnitude of the profiles increased as the supply air temperature increased in the merging and impinging regions of the WCJ. WCJ formed a boundary layer of warm fluid on the nearby wall; thus, can be used to reduce condensation on the inner surfaces of the greenhouse enclosure.

Building energy use constitutes a large part of total energy use, both in the European Union and Sweden. Due to this energy use, and the resulting emissions, several goals for energy efficiency and emissions have been set. In Sweden, a large portion of multi-family buildings were built between 1960 and 1980, which have major energy savings potential. The purpose of this paper is further development and validation of previously introduced energy signature method and its inherent parameters. The method was applied on a multi-family building where thermal energy data supplied by the district heating company was available before and after deep renovation. Using IDA ICE, a building energy simulation (BES) software model was created of the building, to aid in validation of the energy signature method. The paper highlighted the accuracy of the proposed energy signature (PES) method and a sensitivity analysis on the inherent parameters have been performed. The results showed new ways of treatment of the thermal energy data and revealed how more information can be extracted from this data.

This paper focuses on multi-family buildings in a Swedish city district, erected between 1965 and 1973, which are now in need of renovation. For the two types of multi-family buildings in the district, tower buildings and low-rise buildings, dynamic energy use is predicted by using an energy signature method. The energy signature is then used to calculate the primary energy use number of the building stock, according to calculations methods dictated by Swedish building regulations. These regulations are also used to assess which multi-family buildings are in need of renovation, based on the buildings’ primary energy use. For buildings that need energy renovations, it is simulated so that the energy use of each multi-family building complies with these same building regulations. The proposed methodology for simulating energy renovation also determines new energy signature parameters, related to building heat loss coefficient, balance temperature and domestic hot water usage. The effects of simulated renovation are displayed in a duration diagram, revealing how a large-scale renovation affects the district’s heat load in different annual periods, which affects the local district heating system. Sensitivity analysis is also performed before and after simulated energy renovation. 

This report summaries the work within the project ”Effect of spatial-temporal behavior of a newly developed cooling system on carbon and stainless-steel bar properties”. The project was conducted from 2020-01-01 to 2022-12-31 and was co-produced by SSAB, Outokumpu and University of Gävle (UoG). The Knowledge Foundation, SSAB, Outokumpu and UoG financed the project.

For the Swedish steel companies SSAB and Outokumpu producing special steels, it is very important to be able to control the cooling process in order to produce steel bars with excellent properties. Both steel companies also want to be able to control the cooling process so that the excellent steel properties become even over the bars’ spatial configuration.

The aim of the present project is to reveal the spatial-temporal behavior of a newly developed cooling technology in order to produce steel bars with excellent properties and to control the phase transformation to achieve optimal performance of the steel bars.

By using the special test rig at the UoG, detail temperature measurement mapping, invers solution and direct numerical simulation, the present project has identified and quantified several important aspects related to the quenching process, operating conditions, and temperature field development within the investigated products. The result from the proposed cooling process provides an outstanding cooling rate that is very crucial to obtain the required steel phase and thus the correct properties of the bar with different sizes. Results from this study have also shown that the cost per kg product can be reduced by tunning the process parameters such as soaking time and bar temperature before starting the cooling process.

In addition, both experimental and numerical results of the material investigation show that the cooling technology has resulted in the desired phase transformation and subsequently the desired steel phases and material properties. The results show that the cooling technology and the control of the cooling parameters can be used to optimize the material properties of the bar materials.

These good results and conclusions have been obtained via the deep collaboration between the SSAB, Outokumpu and UoG. The co-production, starting in the steering group planning the work along with the combination of research conducted at UoG and at the companies, have led to a successful project with great knowledge transfer in all direction during the duration of the project.

Conventional ventilation systems (mixing and displacement) produce low air quality in industrial premises. A new air supply system (confluent jets system) may improve the ventilation efficiency and the energy efficiency. When round jets issue from co-planar nozzles with enough spacing, they converge, merge, and combine at certain downstream distances, which are called confluent jets. In order to numerically predict confluent jets, it is crucial to provide inlet boundary conditions for these jets at the nozzles' exit. Numerical prediction of inlet boundary conditions of confluent jets was chosen due to two reasons: the difficulty of measurement at the nozzles' exit, and lack of information about the shape of the employed nozzles to make artificial inlet profiles. Numerical predictions by two turbulence models (Realizable k - ε and RSM) of the supply device producing the confluent jets was verified by hot-wire measurements at 0.26 d0 downstream of the nozzles' exit in both lateral and vertical direction. The verification was carried out for different nozzles in an array by measuring axial velocity and its turbulence intensity. The axial velocity profile at the nozzles exit has a saddle-back shape with two distinct off-centered overshoots. The convergence of the velocity profile shows the existence of Vena contracta phenomena. Low turbulence intensity at the central part of nozzles was found with narrow shear layer upstream of confluent jet flow. Differences of velocity components, turbulent kinetic energy (TKE), and turbulent dissipation rate (TDR) of the studied contraction nozzle were examined with a flow issuing from a typical long pipe. Reynolds number dependency in the studied range has been carried out and Re effects were observed on TKE but not on TDR. 

Conventional ventilation systems (mixing and displacement) produce low air quality in industrial premises. A new air supply system (confluent jet system) may improve both ventilation and energy efficiency. When round jets are issued from coplanar nozzles with enough spacing, they converge, merge, and combine at a certain downstream distance, which are called "confluent jets." In this study, the velocity field of the proximal region of confluent jets was recorded by traversing a hot-wire probe across the jets in one column at selected distances from the nozzles' exit in order to examine the performance of SST k - ω turbulence model. The experimental and numerical results from this work are summarized in a set of mapping fields of mean velocity for the confluent jet zones, which are presented in a generalized non-dimensional form. The existence of an initial, a converging, a merging, and a combined region in the confluent jets has been found for three low Reynolds numbers. Three different confluent jets can be seen in the array of jets studied placed six by six symmetrically on the long side of a cylindrical supply device. The streamwise velocity of the geometrical centerline of side jets and corner jets decays faster than that for the fully confluent jets, due to deflection towards their adjacent neighboring jets. Side jets and corner jets deflect to their adjacent jets and finally merge and combine with them, while fully confluent jets normally spread and amalgamate with each other. Low local pressure is responsible for the amalgamation of confluent jets, but the static pressure reaches a minimum value between side jets and their neighboring jets, which results in the deflection of the side jets.

In order to study the flow behavior of multiple jets, numerical prediction of the three-dimensional domain of round jets from the nozzle edge up to the turbulent region is essential. The previous numerical studies on the round jet are limited to either two-dimensional investigation with Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) models or three-dimensional prediction with higher turbulence models such as large eddy simulation (LES) or direct numerical simulation (DNS). The present study tries to evaluate different RANS turbulence models in the three-dimensional simulation of the whole domain of an isothermal, low Re (Re = 2125, 3461, and 4555), free, turbulent round jet. For this evaluation the simulation results from two two-equation (low Re k-ε and low Re shear stress transport (SST) k-ω), a transition three-equation (k-kl-ω), and a transition four-equation (SST) eddy-viscosity turbulence models are compared with hot-wire anemometry measurements. Due to the importance of providing correct inlet boundary conditions, the inlet velocity profile, the turbulent kinetic energy (k), and its specific dissipation rate (ω) at the nozzle exit have been employed from an earlier verified numerical simulation. Two-equation RANS models with low Reynolds correction can predict the whole domain (initial, transition, and fully developed regions) of the round jet with prescribed inlet boundary conditions. The transition models could only reach to a good agreement with the measured mean axial velocities and its rms in the initial region. It worth mentioning that the round jet anomaly is still present in the turbulent region of the round jet predicted by the low Re k-ε. By comparing the k and the ω predicted by different turbulence models, the blending functions in the cross-diffusion term is found one of the reasons behind the more consistent prediction by the low Re SST k-ω. 

Multiple interacting jets (confluent jets) are employed in many engineering applications, and the significant design factors must be investigated. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is used to numerically predict the flow field in the proximal region of a single row of round jets. The numerical results that are obtained when using the low Reynolds k-∈ are validated with the experimental data that are acquired by particle image velocimetry (PIV). PIV was used to measure mean velocity and turbulence properties in the proximal region of a row of six parallel coplanar round air jets with equidistant spacing at low Reynolds number (Re = 3290). The low Reynolds k-∈ underpredicts the streamwise velocity in the onset of the jets' decay. The characteristic points are determined for various regions between two neighboring jets. The comparison of the merging point (MP) and the combined point (CP) computed from measurements and simulations shows good agreement in the different regions between the jets. In this study, a computational parametric study is also conducted to determine the main effects of three design factors and the interactions between them on the flow field development using response surface method (RSM). The influences of the inlet velocity, the spacing between the nozzles, and the diameter of the nozzles on the locations of the characteristic points are presented in the form of correlations (regression equations). CFD is used to numerically predict the characteristic points for a set of required studies, for which the design values of the simulation cases are determined by the Box-Behnken method. The results indicate that the spacing between the nozzles has a major impact on the flow characteristics in the near-field region of multiple interacting jets. The RSM shows that the inlet velocity has a marginal effect on the merging and CPs. All of the square terms are removed from the response equations of MP, and only one two-way interaction term between inlet velocity and spacing remains in the regression model with a marginal effect. The square of the nozzle diameter contributes in the regression equations of CP in some regions between the jets.

Three-dimensional simulation of the whole domain (initial, transition and fully developed regions) of round jet is essential in order to predict and to study the flow behavior of multiple jets (e.g. confluent jets). According to authors knowledge, numerical prediction of round jet with RANS models that has been presented by other researchers, are only in two-dimensional (axisymmetric) and mostly for the fully developed region. The inlet boundary conditions,  inlet velocity profile, turbulent kinetic energy and its dissipation rate at the diffuser exit has been governed from an earlier verified numerical simulation. In the present paper, results of three-dimensional modeling of isothermal, free, turbulent round jet with two two-equation (Low Re  and SST ), a transition three-equation ( ) and a transition four-equation (SST) eddy-viscosity turbulence models with resolved inlet profiles are compared and validated with hot-wire anemometry. This study shows that numerical simulation of round jet with SST  gives good agreement with measured mean longitudinal velocities, while transition models could only predict the initial region of round jet.

This article reports on an experimental investigation of the near-field behavior of interacting jets at low Reynolds numbers (Re = 2125, 3290 and 4555). Two measurement techniques, particle image velocimetry (PIV) and laser Doppler anemometry (LDA), were employed to measure mean velocity and turbulence statistics in the near field of a row of six parallel coplanar round jets with equidistant spacing. The overall results from PIV and LDA measurements show good agreement, although LDA enabled more accurate measurements in the thin shear layers very close to the nozzle exit. The evolution of all six coplanar jets showed initial, merging, and combined regions. While the length of the potential core and the maximum velocity in the merging region are Reynolds number-dependent, the location of the merging points and the minimum velocity between jets were found to be independent of Reynolds number. Side jets at the edges of the coplanar row showed a constant decay rate of maximum velocity after their core region, which is comparable to a single round jet. Jets closer to the center of the row showed reducing velocity decay in the merging region, which led to a higher maximum velocity compared to a single round jet. A comparison with the flow for an in-line array of 6 x 6 round jets showed that the inward bending of streamwise velocity, which exists in the near field of the 6 x 6 jet array, does not occur in the single row of coplanar jets, although both setups have identical nozzle shape, spacing, and Reynolds number.

This article presents results of an experimental study of the confluence of low Reynolds number jets in the near field of a 6 x 6 in-line array of round nozzles. Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) and Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA) were employed to measure mean velocities and turbulence statistics. The comparison of the results from PIV and LDA measurements along different cross-sectional profiles and geometrical centerlines showed good agreement. However, LDA enabled more accurate results very close to the nozzle exits. The evolution of all the individual jets in the array into a single jet showed flow regions similar to twin jets (i.e., initial, converging including mixing transition, merging and combined regions). The lateral displacements play an important role for a confluent jet, where all jets to some degree are deflected towards the center of the nozzle plate. The jet development in terms of velocity decay, length of potential core and lateral displacement varies significantly with the position of the jet in the array. A comparison with single jet and twin jets flow showed considerable differences in velocity decay as well as location and velocity in the combined point. The flow field of confluent jets showed asymmetrical distributions of Reynolds stresses around the axis of the jets and highly anisotropic turbulence. Additionally, the lateral displacement as well as the turbulence development in the proximal region of the studied confluent jet was shown to be dependent on Reynolds number. 

In this study, a two-dimensional linear transition inverse heat conduction problem (IHCP) was solved using the Generalized Minimal Residual Method (GMRES) in quenching process by water jets. The inverse solution method was validated by set of artificial data and solution sensitivity analysis was done on data noise level, regularization parameter, cell size, etc. An experimental study has been carried out on quenching a rotary hollow cylinder by one row of subcooled water jets. The inverse solution approach enabled prediction of surface temperature and heat flux distribution of test specimen in the quenching experiments by using measured internal specimen temperature. Three different boiling curves were defined in the quenching process of a rotary cylinder. Result obtained by the inverse solution showed clear footprint of rotation in surface temperature and heat flux on each revolution of cylinder and temperature variation damping from quenching surface toward interior of specimen.

Transient heat transfer studies of quenching rotary hollow cylinders with in-line and staggered multiple arrays of jets have been carried out experimentally. The study involves three hollow cylinders (Do/d = 12 to 24) with rotation speed 10 to 50 rpm, quenched by subcooled water jets (∆T_sub=50-80 K) with jet flow rate 2.7 to 10.9 L/min. The increase in area-averaged and maximum heat flux over quenching surface (A_f ) has been observed in the studied multiple arrays with constant Q_total compared to previous studies. Investigation of radial temperature distribution at stagnation point of jet reveals that the footprint of configuration of 4-row array is highlighted in radial distances near the outer surface and vanishes further down toward the inner surface. The influence of the main quenching parameters on local average surface heat flux at stagnation point is addressed in all the boiling regimes where the result indicates jet flow rate provides strongest effect in all the boiling regimes. Effectiveness of magnitude of maximum heat flux in the boiling curve for the studied parameters is reported. The result of spatial and temporal heat flux by radial conduction in the solid presents projection depth of cyclic variation of surface heat flux in the radial axis as it disappears near inner surface of hollow cylinder. In addition, correlations are proposed for area- averaged Nusselt number as well as average and maximum local heat flux at stagnation point of jet for the in-line and staggered multiple arrays.

Experimental study has been carried out to investigate transient quenching of a rotary hollow cylinder by water impinging jets in multiple jet arrays. Subcooled water jets (Δ𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑏= 55-85K) were placed into two types of nozzle arrays: 1-row and 2-row in-line array. The flow rate of water jets varied from 2.7 to 10.9 L/min, impinging on hot rotary cylinder (𝑇𝑖 =600℃) with rotation speed 10-50 rpm and different curvature ratio (𝐷𝑜/d = 12, 19 and 24). The local average and maximum boiling heat transfer at water jet’s stagnation point revealed effect of studied quenching parameters and multiple jet arrays in the boiling heat transfer. The result showed among the studied parameters, jet’s flow rate and curvature ratio influenced heat transfer in all the boiling regimes. Rotation speed was effective in film and transition boiling regime and strong effect of subcooling was captured in the transition boiling regime. The characteristics of maximum heat flux point in the boiling curve were found to be dependent on the studied quenching parameters as well as array of nozzles. Multiple jet arrays had effect on the spatial variation and rate of boiling heat transfer on quenching surface. Higher area-averaged and maximum surface heat flux was obtained by 2-row array while array’s total flow rate was kept constant. It was found that by impinging constant water flow rate into the jets, 2-row array with twice the number of impinging jets enhanced heat transfer significantly in film and transition boiling regime in combination with other quenching parameters.

Quenching cooling rate of rotary hollow cylinder by one row of water impinging jets has been experimentallystudied. Water jets (d = 8 mm) with sub-cooling 55 to 85°C and Reynolds number 8,006 to 36,738 impinged over rotaryhot hollow cylinder (rotation speed 10 to 70 rpm) with initial temperature 250 to 600°C. Impingement impact angle of row of jets varied between 0 to 135° and jet-to-jet spacing in row patten was 2 to 8d. The results revealed more uniformityon cooling rate of quenching in smaller jet-to-jet spacing (2 and 4d) where wetting front regions are located closer toneighbor jet’s region. By increasing spacing, footprint of annular transition region was highlighted in quenching coolingrate contour. A distinct quenching characteristic was obtained for impingement impact angle of 0° compare to otherangles. With initial temperature above the Leidenfrost temperature, low cooling rate was achieved in film and transitionboiling compare to a steep increase of cooling rate at start of quenching with higher maximum heat transfer for experimentswith initial temperatures less than Leidenfrost temperature. The effect of other parameters on quenching coolingrate was highlighted in film and transition boiling while no significant differences were observed in nucleate boiling.

Experiments have been conducted to analyze quenching of a hot rotary hollow cylinder by one and two rows of water-impinging jets. Sub-cooled water jets (ΔT_sub = 45–85 K) with flow rate 8006 to 36,738 impinged on hollow cylinder with rotation speed 10 to 70 rpm at various initial wall superheat temperatures from 250 to 600ºC. Jet-to-jet and jet-to-surface spacing varied between 4 to 10d and 1.5 to 7d respectively and angular position of impinging jets were tested from 0 to 135º. Effectiveness of the defined parameters on stagnation point’s local average heat flux was found lower in the film and nucleate boiling compare to transition boiling regime where rotation speed had the highest impact. Characteristic of maximum heat flux (MHF) at stagnation point and upwash flow point were analyzed based on surface heat flux, time and temperature corresponding to MHF. Same maximum heat flux levels were captured in the both points which reveals importance of the flow behavior at the upwash flow point. The effectiveness of the parameters to improve average heat transfer was studied based on cooling area of each water impingingjet in the multiple configurations. Higher average heat transfer was obtained by increasing flow rate and subcooling temperature and lower initial wall superheat temperature corresponding to onset of transition boiling regime.

Experimental study has been carried out to investigate transient quenching of rotary hollow cylinder by subcooled water impinging jets (∆Tsub= 55-85K) in 1-row and 2-row inline array. The flow rate of water jets varied from 2.7 to 10.9 L/min, impinging on hot rotary cylinder (Ti =600℃) with rotation speed 10-50 rpm and different curvature ratio (Do/d = 12, 19 and 24). The local average and maximum boiling heat transfer at water jet’s stagnation point revealed effect of studied quenching parameters and multiple jet arrays in the boiling heat transfer. The result showed among the studied parameters, jet’s flow rate and curvature ratio influenced heat transfer in all the boiling regimes. Rotation speed was effective in film and transition boiling regime and strong effect of subcooling was captured in the transition boiling regime. The characteristics of maximum heat flux point in the boiling curve were found to be dependent on the studied quenching parameters as well as array of nozzles. Multiple jet arrays had effect on the spatial variation and rate of boiling heat transfer on quenching surface. The heat transfer enhancement by larger number of rows, i.e. 2-row array, was studied based on two approaches of constant single jet’s flow rate and array’s total flow rate. The result shown better heat transfer performance is achieved by increasing number of row in the array while the total flow rate is constant. It was found that by impinging constant water flow rate into the jets, 2-row array with twice the number of impinging jets enhanced heat transfer significantly in film and transition boiling regime in combination with other quenching parameters.

The flow behavior of isothermal and non-isothermal wall confluent jets (WCJ) ventilation system was investigated experimentally in a mock-up office environment. Two flow regions were identified: first, a primary region is developed below the supply device, with axis along the inlet wall, and a secondary wall-jet forms along the floor. The velocity and temperature fields were recorded by traversing a hot wire and thermistor anemometers for both primary and secondary regions. The results show self-similarity characteristic of the velocity and temperature profiles for both isothermal and non-isothermal WCJ. Maximum velocity decay and its spreading rate are linear and independent of the inlet airflow rate. Minimum temperature difference and its spread also show linear decay. The spreading rates for maximum velocity are similar in both the primary and secondary regions normal to the inlet wall and floor, respectively, which is consistent with previous studies on wall jets. The variation of draught rating is evaluated via mean velocity, turbulence intensity and temperature. Although the WCJ has slow velocity decay, which enables it to cover almost the entire floor of the test room, the draught is acceptable in the occupied zone according to ISO 7730. PMV (predicted mean vote) and PPD (predicted percentage dissatisfied) are presented for the occupied zone of the room. 

This study presents a numerical investigation of an air supply device based on wall confluent jets in a ventilated room. Confluent jets can be described as multiple round jets issuing from supply device apertures. The jets converge, merge, and combine at a certain distance downstream from the supply device and behave as a united jet or so-called "confluent "jets. The numerical predictions of the velocity flow field of isothermal confluent jets with three Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) turbulence models (RNG k-ε, realizable k-ε, and SST k - ω) are reported in the present study. The results of the numerical predictions are verified with detailed experimental measurements by hot-wire anemometer and constant-temperature anemometers for two airflow rates. The box method is used to provide the inlet boundary conditions. The study of the airflow distribution showed that a primary wall jet (wall confluent jet) exists close to the supply device along the wetted-wall and a secondary wall jet is created after the stagnation region along the floor. It is presented that the flow field of the primary and secondary wall jet predicted by turbulence models is in good agreement with the experimental data. The current study is also compared with the literature in terms of the velocity decay and the spreading rate of the primary and secondary wall jet, the results of which are consistent with each other. Velocity decay and the spreading rate of the secondary wall jet in vertical and lateral directions were studied for different inlet airflow rates and inlet discharge heights. The comparative results demonstrate that the flow behavior is nearly independent of the inlet flow rate. Inlet discharge height is found to have impact close to the inlet, where the velocity decays faster when the jet discharges at a higher level. The decay tendency is similar as the jet enters into the room for all discharge heights. 

This study presents numerical investigation of an air supply device based on wall confluent jets in a ventilated room. Confluent jets can be described as multiple round jets issuing from supply device apertures. The jets converge, merge, and combine at a certain distance downstream from the supply device and behave as a united jet, or so-called confluent jet. The numerical predictions of the velocity flow field of isothermal confluent jets with three Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes turbulence models (renormalization group k-epsilon, realizable k-epsilon, and shear stress transport k-omega) are reported in the present study. The results of the numerical predictions are verified with detailed experimental measurements by a hot wire anemometer and constant temperature anemometers for two airflow rates. The box method is used to provide the inlet boundary conditions. The study of the airflow distribution shows that a primary wall jet (wall confluent jet) exists close to the supply device along the wetted wall, and a secondary wall jet is created after the stagnation region along the floor. It is presented that the flow field of the primary and secondary wall jet predicted by turbulence models is in good agreement with the experimental data. The current study is also compared with the literature in terms of velocity decay and the spreading rate of the primary and secondary wall jet, the results of which are consistent with each other. Velocity decay and the spreading rate of the secondary wall jet in vertical and lateral directions were studied for different inlet airflow rates and inlet discharge heights. The comparative results demonstrate that the flow behavior is nearly independent of the inlet flow rate. Inlet discharge height is found to have impact close to the inlet, where the velocity decays faster when the jet discharges at higher level. The decay tendency is similar as the jet enters into the room for all discharge heights.