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Rahi, A. F., Johansson, J., Huq, A. M. & Hartwig, F. (2026). Assessing the business impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic and the Russia-Ukraine War: The role of corporate sustainability and financial performance. Journal of Global Responsibility, 17(3), 621-640
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Assessing the business impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic and the Russia-Ukraine War: The role of corporate sustainability and financial performance
2026 (English)In: Journal of Global Responsibility, ISSN 2041-2568, E-ISSN 2041-2576, Vol. 17, no 3, p. 621-640Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

This study aims to examine whether corporate sustainability practices act as a shield ensuring financial performance during times of crisis. Data from 471 European firms during 2018–23 were categorized into three periods: (1) before the Covid-19 pandemic, (2) during the pandemic, and (3) during the Russia-Ukraine War. In this regard, pooled ordinary least squares (POLS), two-step generalized method of moments (GMM), Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney non-parametric tests were performed to examine the impact of crises and whether corporate sustainability practices act as a shield to ensure financial performance. The proponents of the resource-based view have argued that corporate sustainability practices create additional valuable resources that might work as a shield for ensuring financial performance even during times of crisis. While many studies have examined the impact of the recent pandemic, few compare the impacts of the war’s repercussions on business performance. This study found a distinction between natural (Covid) and human-induced crises (war) on corporate financial performance. The results suggest that sustainability practices might work as a shield during a natural crisis but not during a human-induced one.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2026
Keywords
Geopolitical crisis, Russia, Ukraine, war, Covid-19, ESG, corporate social responsibility (CSR), financial performance
National Category
Business Administration
Research subject
Health-Promoting Work, Crime and social harms
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-47079 (URN)10.1108/JGR-05-2024-0080 (DOI)001808769700003 ()2-s2.0-105009389879 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2025-06-08 Created: 2025-06-08 Last updated: 2026-08-26Bibliographically approved
Huq, A. M., Hartwig, F., Bai, W. & Rudholm, N. (2026). Beyond Regulation: Adaptive Responses of Non-Regulated SMEs to Mandatory CSR Reporting. Journal of Accounting & Organizational Change
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Beyond Regulation: Adaptive Responses of Non-Regulated SMEs to Mandatory CSR Reporting
2026 (English)In: Journal of Accounting & Organizational Change, ISSN 1832-5912, E-ISSN 1839-5473Article in journal (Refereed) Accepted
Abstract [en]

Purpose: This study examines whether mandatory sustainability/CSR disclosure generates spillover effects beyond firms directly subject to regulation. While prior research focuses mainly on direct compliance effects, little is known about whether disclosure mandates reshape reporting practices among non-regulated firms, despite the relevance of this question for current debates on the scope of EU sustainability regulation.

Design/methodology/approach: Using Sweden’s implementation of the Non-Financial Reporting Directive (NFRD) as a natural experiment, the study exploits statutory size thresholds that distinguish directly regulated firms from non-regulated listed SMEs within a common institutional environment. A generalized difference-in-differences design estimates reform effects for directly regulated Swedish firms and non-regulated Swedish SMEs relative to non-EU manufacturing firms, while using variation in SMEs’ distance from the thresholds to identify spillover effects. CSR reporting is measured using hand-collected annual and CSR reports and issue-level coding of substantive disclosures based on a SASB materiality framework.

Findings: Non-regulated SMEs close to the thresholds increase CSR reporting substantially following the reform, with stronger effects among firms with low pre-reform reporting levels. The findings indicate that mandatory disclosure can generate meaningful spillover effects beyond formally regulated firms and that firms near regulatory thresholds may respond strongly even when legally outside the mandate.

Originality: The study shows that mandatory CSR disclosure can reshape reporting practices among firms legally outside the mandate. It theorizes regulatory thresholds as institutional boundary markers that heighten visibility, stakeholder expectations, and uncertainty about future inclusion, linking targeted transparency with spillover coercive and mimetic pressures beyond formal compliance boundaries.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2026
Keywords
SMEs, sustainability, CSR, NFRD, isomorphism, natural experiment, manufacturing industry
National Category
Business Administration
Research subject
Health-Promoting Work, Crime and social harms
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-50867 (URN)10.1108/JAOC-09-2025-0355 (DOI)
Available from: 2026-08-25 Created: 2026-08-25 Last updated: 2026-09-28Bibliographically approved
Hartwig, F., Huq, A. M., Leidhammar, B., Mondani, H. & Rostami, A. (2026). En analys av riskindikatorer i fyra offentligt finansierade branscher.
Open this publication in new window or tab >>En analys av riskindikatorer i fyra offentligt finansierade branscher
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2026 (Swedish)Report (Other academic)
Abstract [sv]

Denna rapport har haft som övergripande syfte att på aggregerad nivå analysera om och hur företag i fyra riskbranscher som har erhållit medel från det offentliga (benämns hädanefter offentlig finansierade branscher) - 1) personlig assistans, 2) hälso-och sjukvård/vård och omsorg, 3) tandvård och 4) avfallshantering - skiljer sig från företag i andra delar av näringslivet med avseende på redovisningsbaserade nyckeltal och ett antal riskindikatorer som i tidigare forskning, tillsynsarbete och rättsliga avgöranden har kopplats till ekonomiska oegentligheter, svag bolagsstyrning och förhöjd finansiell risk. Analysen bygger på omfattande registerdata för samtliga svenska aktiebolag under perioden 2020–2023 och genomförs genom systematiska jämförelser med två jämförelsegrupper: restaurang-och cateringverksamhet, som utgör en etablerad riskbransch utan vidare offentlig finansiering, samt företag i övriga branscher i det svenska näringslivet.

Ett tydligt och genomgående resultat i rapporten är att företagen i de offentligt finansierade branscherna, sett till grundläggande redovisningsbaserade nyckeltal, i huvudsak inte uppvisar en svagare finansiell ställning än jämförelsegrupperna. Tvärtom framstår dessa företag, i genomsnitt, som relativt finansiellt starka. I det matchade urvalet visar jämförelser av medelvärden att företagen i de offentligt finansierade branscherna är större, mer lönsamma, mer likvida och mindre skuldsatta än både restaurang-och cateringföretag och företag i övriga branscher. Ett visst undantag återfinns i avfallshantering, där skuldsättningen är något högre än i övriga studerade branscher. När analysen fördjupas och fokus riktas mot rapportens tolv riskindikatorer framträder en mer nyanserad bild. Riskindikatorerna avser bland annat kapitalstruktur, bolagsstyrning, revisionsförhållanden samt redovisnings- och skattebeteende. Resultaten visar inte att de offentligt finansierade branscherna generellt uppvisar högre risknivåer än jämförelsegrupperna. Tvärtom signalerar flertalet indikatorer lägre eller likvärdig risk.

Publisher
p. 112
Keywords
Forensic accounting, redovisning, kriminologi, revision, riskindikatorer, bolagsstyrning, ekonomisk brottslighet, oegentligheter, riskbranscher
National Category
Business Administration Criminology
Research subject
Health-Promoting Work, Crime and social harms
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-49221 (URN)
Funder
European CommissionThe Jan Wallander and Tom Hedelius Foundation, P23-0312The Jan Wallander and Tom Hedelius Foundation, P23-0200
Available from: 2026-02-01 Created: 2026-02-01 Last updated: 2026-02-27Bibliographically approved
Huq, A. M., Shepeleva, N., Pawar, V. & Hartwig, F. (2025). An empirical investigation of the link between board characteristics and misconduct in SMEs.
Open this publication in new window or tab >>An empirical investigation of the link between board characteristics and misconduct in SMEs
2025 (English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

We investigate whether board structures mitigate self-dealing in SMEs, a context marked by concentrated ownership, limited transparency, and weak external monitoring. Drawing on Swedish adjudicated self-dealing cases between 2000-2025, we construct comparison groups of non-adjudicated firms matched either on firm-level observables, director identity, or a combination of both, to test our hypotheses. Board independence, measured through interlocks or proxies for family and social ties, shows no consistent association with misconduct, suggesting that in SMEs independence often lacks substantive force. Gender diversity, whether measured incrementally or at critical-mass thresholds, likewise does not reduce hazard. By contrast, director busyness is negatively associated with misconduct when identification tightens, consistent with reputational incentives outweighing time-constraint concerns. Methodologically, the study demonstrates how triangulated matched designs can disentangle influence from selection in rare-event settings. For regulators and lenders, strengthening accountability and raising reputational costs for directors may be more effective in curbing selfdealing than mandating independence or diversity alone. Leadership separation remains valuable but should be complemented by mechanisms that enhance director's responsibility across board portfolios.

Keywords
financial misconduct, board characteristics, governance mechanism, SMEs
National Category
Economics and Business
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-50912 (URN)10.2139/ssrn.5595630 (DOI)
Available from: 2026-08-26 Created: 2026-08-26 Last updated: 2026-08-26Bibliographically approved
Hartwig, F., Huq, A. M. & Rudholm, N. (2025). Measuring Corporate Tax Avoidance When Regulation Changes: Evidence from a Voluntary Audit Reform.
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Measuring Corporate Tax Avoidance When Regulation Changes: Evidence from a Voluntary Audit Reform
2025 (English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Using a voluntary audit reform in Sweden in 2010 as an exogenous shift in auditing regulation for micro firms, we investigate how voluntary audits affect corporate tax avoidance. Our research shows that two commonly used measures of corporate tax avoidance (taxes paid scaled by lagged total assets and a measure of conforming tax avoidance scaled by lagged total assets) are fundamentally flawed if used to investigate regulation changes that are related to firm size such as in the Swedish reform. The reason is that smaller firms in most cases grow faster than large ones in their efforts to reach minimum efficient scale. As such, both these measures will exhibit a negative trend as firms grow, and the trend for smaller firms will in most cases be more negative than for larger ones, creating a false appearance of reduced tax payments and increased tax avoidance over time, even if the tax payments as a share of profits (the tax-base) remain unchanged. We also show that an often-used alternative measure of corporate tax avoidance, the cash-effective tax rate, does not suffer this flaw as it instead scales tax payments by profits.

Keywords
Tax evasion, regulatory reform, earnings management, placebo testing, conditional difference-in-difference analysis
National Category
Economics and Business
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-50913 (URN)10.2139/ssrn.5222103 (DOI)
Available from: 2026-08-26 Created: 2026-08-26 Last updated: 2026-08-26Bibliographically approved
Hartwig, F., Huq, A. M. & Rudholm, N. (2025). Replicating and extending ‘Voluntary vs mandatory: the role of auditing in constraining corporate tax avoidance in small private firms’. Institute of Retail Economics
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Replicating and extending ‘Voluntary vs mandatory: the role of auditing in constraining corporate tax avoidance in small private firms’
2025 (English)Report (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Many European countries have abolished mandatory audits for small firms to reduce their regulatory burden. In a recent article, Dong et al. (2023) reported that voluntarily audited firms experienced a 19% reduction in their total tax burden compared to mandatorily audited firms following an auditing reform in Sweden, suggesting a causal link between the revised auditing regulation and corporate tax avoidance. In this study, we first replicate Dong et al.’s (2023) results with reasonable accuracy. We then incorporate a series of placebo tests to examine whether their results are causal effects of the reform or spurious correlations. Placebo tests adjusting the timing of the reform, along with tests modifying the size of firms eligible for voluntary audits under the reform, reveal statistically significant reform effects where none should be expected. To further investigate, we conduct an independent analysis of the data, finding that voluntarily audited firms increased their tax payments due to the introduction of the reform, rather than reducing them. 

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Institute of Retail Economics, 2025. p. 42
Series
HFI Working Paper
Keywords
Tax evasion, regulatory reform, earnings management, accounting, auditing, placebo testing, conditional difference-in-difference analysis.
National Category
Business Administration
Research subject
Health-Promoting Work, Crime and social harms
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-46770 (URN)
Funder
Handelsbanken Research Foundation, P23-0312 och P23-0200
Available from: 2025-04-14 Created: 2025-04-14 Last updated: 2025-10-02Bibliographically approved
Hartwig, F., Huq, A. M. & Rudholm, N. (2025). Revision och skatteundandragande i småföretag. Handelns Forskningsinstitut
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Revision och skatteundandragande i småföretag
2025 (Swedish)Report (Other academic)
Abstract [sv]

Den 1 november 2010 avskaffade Alliansregeringen revisionsplikten för mindre aktiebolag och vissa handelsbolag i syfte att minska företagens administrativa börda och stärka deras konkurrenskraft. Reformen skulle leda till ökad tillväxt och sysselsättning.

En studie av Dong m fl. (2023) rapporterar dock att frivillig revision lett till ökat skatteundandragande, där företag som väljer att revidera frivilligt minskar sina skatteinbetalningar med i genomsnitt 15 000 kronor per år jämfört med de som omfattas av obligatorisk revision. Dong m fl. (2023) förklarar resultatet med att möjligheten att välja bort revision har ökat revisorernas benägenhet att tolerera skatteupplägg och minskat deras benägenhet att rapportera oegentligheter.

I denna rapport granskas och replikeras analysen från Dong m fl. (2023) för att säkerställa att deras metod fångar de verkliga reformeffekterna. Rapporten identifierar flera metodologiska problem, särskilt att två av de tre använda måtten på skatteundandragande påverkas av förändringar i företagens tillgångar snarare än av faktiskt skatteundandragande. För att testa detta genomfördes placebotester med fiktiva reformdatum. Dessa tester visade att samma "reformeffekter" kunde observeras även när ingen verklig reform hade skett, vilket ifrågasätter de slutsatser som Dong m fl. (2023) drar.

Genom en alternativ metodik finner denna studie att företag som frivilligt väljer revision snarare ökar sina skatteinbetalningar än minskar dem. Resultaten visar att skatteinbetalningarna ökat med i genomsnitt 2 100 kronor per företag (när den effektiva skattesatsen används som mått på skatteundandragande), och att dessa företag även uppvisar högre vinster än de som fortsatt omfattas av revisionsplikt.

Att de frivilligt reviderade företagen ökar sin effektiva skattesats beror på att såväl skatteinbetalningarna som vinsterna ökar mer för de frivilligt reviderade företagen än de obligatoriskt reviderade efter reformens genomförande, och att ökningen i skatteinbetalningarna är något högre än ökningen i vinsterna. Att frivilligt reviderade företag ökar sina vinster mer än de obligatoriskt reviderade är dels en följd av selektion där det är framgångsrika företag med tillväxtambitioner som väljer att revideras även om man inte måste, dels en följd av att frivilligt reviderade företag får en något lägre kostnad för kapital än sina obligatoriskt reviderade konkurrenter.

Rapportens slutsats är att det inte finns något vetenskapligt stöd för att frivillig revision har lett till ökat skatteundandragande. Istället har reformen haft en positiv tillväxteffekt, vilket borde beaktas i framtida policybeslut. Baserat på resultaten finns goda argument för att fler företag bör få välja bort revision, i linje med Schweiz och andra EU-länder.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Handelns Forskningsinstitut, 2025. p. 38
Series
HFI Forskningsrapport ; 2025:1
Keywords
Skatteundandragande, revision, reglering
National Category
Business Administration
Research subject
Health-Promoting Work, Crime and social harms
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-46543 (URN)
Available from: 2025-02-18 Created: 2025-02-18 Last updated: 2025-10-02Bibliographically approved
Hartwig, F., Huq, A. M. & Rudholm, N. (2025). Risk att forskningen misstar tillväxt för skatteundandragande. Balans : tidskrift för redovisning och revision, 1-9
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Risk att forskningen misstar tillväxt för skatteundandragande
2025 (Swedish)In: Balans : tidskrift för redovisning och revision, ISSN 0346-8208, p. 1-9Article in journal (Other academic) Published
Abstract [sv]

Artikeln belyser att vissa forskningsstudier baserar sina analyser av skatteundandragande på otillförlitliga mått, särskilt i samband med reformer eller andra exogena förändringar som påverkar företag olika beroende på deras storlek. Ett vanligt använt mått är skattebördan, definierad som företagets skatteinbetalningar i förhållande till dess totala tillgångar. Vid analyser av hur skatteundandragandet förändras till följd av en reform kan användningen av detta mått leda till missvisande slutsatser.

Problemet blir särskilt tydligt vid jämförelser mellan företag av olika storlek över tid. Mindre företag tenderar att växa snabbare än större företag, men deras skatteinbetalningar ökar inte alltid i samma takt som tillgångarna eller omsättningen. Detta kan felaktigt tolkas som ett ökat skatteundandragande bland mindre företag, trots att deras skattemässiga beteende i praktiken inte förändrats. Därmed riskerar skattebördan att vara ett missvisande mått vid bedömningar av hur skatteundandragande påverkas över tid av reformer eller andra exogena förändringar.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
FAR, 2025
Keywords
Skatteundandragande, difference in difference, revision, ekonomisk brottslighet, skattebörda
National Category
Business Administration
Research subject
Health-Promoting Work, Crime and social harms
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-46839 (URN)
Funder
Handelsbanken Research Foundation, P23-0312 och P23-0200
Available from: 2025-05-05 Created: 2025-05-05 Last updated: 2025-10-02Bibliographically approved
Grek, Å., Hartwig, F. & Dougherty, M. (2024). An Inductive Approach to Quantitative Methodology – Application of Novel Penalising Models in a Case Study of Target Debt Level in Swedish Listed Companies. Journal of Risk and Financial Management, 17(5), Article ID 207.
Open this publication in new window or tab >>An Inductive Approach to Quantitative Methodology – Application of Novel Penalising Models in a Case Study of Target Debt Level in Swedish Listed Companies
2024 (English)In: Journal of Risk and Financial Management, E-ISSN 1911-8074, Vol. 17, no 5, article id 207Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

This paper proposes a method for conducting quantitative inductive research on survey data when the variable of interest follows an ordinal distribution. A methodology based on novel and traditional penalising models is described. The main aim of the study is to pedagogically present the method utilising the new penalising methods in a new application. A case was employed to outline the methodology. The purpose of the case is to select explanatory variables correlated with the target debt level in Swedish-listed companies. 

The survey respondents were matched with accounting information from the companies’ annual reports. However, missing data were present: to fully utilise penalising models, we employed classification and regression trees (CART)-based imputations by multiple imputations chained equations (MICE) to address this problem.

The imputed data were subjected to six penalising models: grouped multinomial lasso, ungrouped multinomial lasso, parallel Element Linked Multinomial-Ordinal (ELMO), semi-parallel ELMO, nonparallel ELMO, and cumulative generalised monotone incremental forward stagewise (GMIFS). While the older models yielded several explanatory variables for the hypothesis formation process, the new models (ELMO and GMIFS) identified only one; the quick asset ratio. Subsequent testing revealed that this variable was the only statistically significant variable to affect the target debt level.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
MDPI, 2024
Keywords
Quantitative research; Inductive research; Survey data; Register data; Penalizing models
National Category
Economics and Business
Research subject
Intelligent Industry
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-44152 (URN)10.3390/jrfm17050207 (DOI)2-s2.0-85194243712 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2024-05-08 Created: 2024-05-08 Last updated: 2025-10-02Bibliographically approved
Rahi, F., Johansson, J., Blomkvist, M. & Hartwig, F. (2024). Corporate sustainability and financial performance: A hybrid literature review. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 31(2), 801-815
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Corporate sustainability and financial performance: A hybrid literature review
2024 (English)In: Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, ISSN 1535-3958, E-ISSN 1535-3966, Vol. 31, no 2, p. 801-815Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

The discussion of “whether it pays to be green” is ongoing. This review does not intend to solve the debate, rather it soothes it by contributing to the concept of “when it pays to be green.” By focusing on the shortcomings of existing literature reviews on the topic of corporate sustainability and financial performance (CSFP) in this bibliometric review, issues were identified that had been overlooked earlier. In general, CSFP holds a positive relationship but in a time lag. Nonconclusive results about the relationship within CSFP are due to self-selection bias, endogeneity issues, and the use of multiple datasets and industry categories. Surprisingly, we also discovered that the impact of sustainability on financial performance is illusive in capitalist countries considered to be economically rational. Institutional and legitimacy requirements are a good starting point for shaping corporate behaviors in the short term; however, they might not be equally appropriate in the long term in cases when corporations shift operations to pollution havens. A multifaceted, synergistic interaction between governmental institutions, corporations, and other stakeholders is required—without imposing authority—to ensure durable sustainable development.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
John Wiley & Sons, 2024
Keywords
Sustainability, corporate performance, financial performance, sustainable development, stakeholder engagement, bibliometric analysis, literature review
National Category
Business Administration
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-42840 (URN)10.1002/csr.2600 (DOI)001060666600001 ()2-s2.0-85169055193 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2023-08-15 Created: 2023-08-15 Last updated: 2025-10-02Bibliographically approved
Organisations
Identifiers
ORCID iD: ORCID iD iconorcid.org/0000-0002-5043-6289

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