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Hartwig, F., Huq, A. M., Leidhammar, B., Mondani, H. & Rostami, A. (2026). En analys av riskindikatorer i fyra offentligt finansierade branscher.
Open this publication in new window or tab >>En analys av riskindikatorer i fyra offentligt finansierade branscher
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2026 (Swedish)Report (Other academic)
Abstract [sv]

Denna rapport har haft som övergripande syfte att på aggregerad nivå analysera om och hur företag i fyra riskbranscher som har erhållit medel från det offentliga (benämns hädanefter offentlig finansierade branscher) - 1) personlig assistans, 2) hälso-och sjukvård/vård och omsorg, 3) tandvård och 4) avfallshantering - skiljer sig från företag i andra delar av näringslivet med avseende på redovisningsbaserade nyckeltal och ett antal riskindikatorer som i tidigare forskning, tillsynsarbete och rättsliga avgöranden har kopplats till ekonomiska oegentligheter, svag bolagsstyrning och förhöjd finansiell risk. Analysen bygger på omfattande registerdata för samtliga svenska aktiebolag under perioden 2020–2023 och genomförs genom systematiska jämförelser med två jämförelsegrupper: restaurang-och cateringverksamhet, som utgör en etablerad riskbransch utan vidare offentlig finansiering, samt företag i övriga branscher i det svenska näringslivet.

Ett tydligt och genomgående resultat i rapporten är att företagen i de offentligt finansierade branscherna, sett till grundläggande redovisningsbaserade nyckeltal, i huvudsak inte uppvisar en svagare finansiell ställning än jämförelsegrupperna. Tvärtom framstår dessa företag, i genomsnitt, som relativt finansiellt starka. I det matchade urvalet visar jämförelser av medelvärden att företagen i de offentligt finansierade branscherna är större, mer lönsamma, mer likvida och mindre skuldsatta än både restaurang-och cateringföretag och företag i övriga branscher. Ett visst undantag återfinns i avfallshantering, där skuldsättningen är något högre än i övriga studerade branscher. När analysen fördjupas och fokus riktas mot rapportens tolv riskindikatorer framträder en mer nyanserad bild. Riskindikatorerna avser bland annat kapitalstruktur, bolagsstyrning, revisionsförhållanden samt redovisnings- och skattebeteende. Resultaten visar inte att de offentligt finansierade branscherna generellt uppvisar högre risknivåer än jämförelsegrupperna. Tvärtom signalerar flertalet indikatorer lägre eller likvärdig risk.

Publisher
p. 112
Keywords
Forensic accounting, redovisning, kriminologi, revision, riskindikatorer, bolagsstyrning, ekonomisk brottslighet, oegentligheter, riskbranscher
National Category
Business Administration Criminology
Research subject
Health-Promoting Work, Crime and social harms
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-49221 (URN)
Funder
European CommissionThe Jan Wallander and Tom Hedelius Foundation, P23-0312The Jan Wallander and Tom Hedelius Foundation, P23-0200
Available from: 2026-02-01 Created: 2026-02-01 Last updated: 2026-02-27Bibliographically approved
Huq, A. M. & Mohammadrezaei, M. (2025). A review of ex ante and ex post materiality measures, and consequences and determinants of material disclosures in sustainability reporting. Journal of Accounting Literature, 47(5), 71-98
Open this publication in new window or tab >>A review of ex ante and ex post materiality measures, and consequences and determinants of material disclosures in sustainability reporting
2025 (English)In: Journal of Accounting Literature, ISSN 0737-4607, Vol. 47, no 5, p. 71-98Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Purpose

The purpose of the review is to synthesize the research on materiality measures of sustainability reporting and highlight how preparers, users, auditors, regulators and other stakeholders assess or determine the materiality in sustainability reporting. The review further summarizes the findings on consequences and determinants of material disclosures in sustainability reporting. Several directions for future research are also discussed.

Design/methodology/approach

This study provides a systematic review of materiality measures developed in the context of sustainability reporting. This synthesis of the literature summarizes the existing methodologies of measuring materiality. It also evaluates the strength and limitations of existing methods and approaches of measuring materiality in sustainability disclosures.

Findings

We find that the ex post materiality measures are simplistic and unidirectional in nature and ex ante materiality measures lack external validity and are generally narrow in focus - for example, focused on single firms or industries. Another major limitation in the current literature is the absence of robust empirical investigation of double materiality in sustainability reporting and a vast majority of the measures are developed without stakeholder engagement. Lastly, we document that the findings on determinants of material disclosure are fragmented and inconclusive and that the literature on consequences of material disclosure is rather un-explored.

Originality/value

The study explains the connections and differences between the various materiality measures. We document that materiality is measured in two distinct ways, ex ante and ex post and often times without stakeholder engagement. Moreover, given that a vast majority of the measures rely on manual content analysis, we find that they suffer from reproducibility and scalability.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Emerald, 2025
Keywords
Literature review, Materiality, Sustainability, Materiality determinants, Materiality consequences
National Category
Economics and Business
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-46015 (URN)10.1108/jal-04-2024-0084 (DOI)001346370500001 ()2-s2.0-85208248619 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2024-11-15 Created: 2024-11-15 Last updated: 2026-03-13Bibliographically approved
Rahi, A. F., Johansson, J., Huq, A. M. & Hartwig, F. (2025). Assessing the business impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic and the Russia-Ukraine War: The role of corporate sustainability and financial performance. Journal of Global Responsibility
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Assessing the business impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic and the Russia-Ukraine War: The role of corporate sustainability and financial performance
2025 (English)In: Journal of Global Responsibility, ISSN 2041-2568, E-ISSN 2041-2576Article in journal (Refereed) Epub ahead of print
Abstract [en]

This study aims to examine whether corporate sustainability practices act as a shield ensuring financial performance during times of crisis. Data from 471 European firms during 2018–23 were categorized into three periods: (1) before the Covid-19 pandemic, (2) during the pandemic, and (3) during the Russia-Ukraine War. In this regard, pooled ordinary least squares (POLS), two-step generalized method of moments (GMM), Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney non-parametric tests were performed to examine the impact of crises and whether corporate sustainability practices act as a shield to ensure financial performance. The proponents of the resource-based view have argued that corporate sustainability practices create additional valuable resources that might work as a shield for ensuring financial performance even during times of crisis. While many studies have examined the impact of the recent pandemic, few compare the impacts of the war’s repercussions on business performance. This study found a distinction between natural (Covid) and human-induced crises (war) on corporate financial performance. The results suggest that sustainability practices might work as a shield during a natural crisis but not during a human-induced one.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2025
Keywords
Geopolitical crisis, Russia, Ukraine, war, Covid-19, ESG, corporate social responsibility (CSR), financial performance
National Category
Business Administration
Research subject
Health-Promoting Work, Crime and social harms
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-47079 (URN)10.1108/JGR-05-2024-0080 (DOI)001519654100001 ()2-s2.0-105009389879 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2025-06-08 Created: 2025-06-08 Last updated: 2026-03-19Bibliographically approved
Huq, A. M. & Mahembe, W. (2025). Influence of sampling methods on bankruptcy prediction: normal vs. abnormal economic conditions. International Journal of Banking, Accounting and Finance, 15(5), Article ID 149819.
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Influence of sampling methods on bankruptcy prediction: normal vs. abnormal economic conditions
2025 (English)In: International Journal of Banking, Accounting and Finance, ISSN 1755-3830, E-ISSN 1755-3849, Vol. 15, no 5, article id 149819Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Bankruptcy prediction research has largely emphasised model performance through feature selection and algorithm optimisation, while the equally important challenge of class imbalance remains underexplored. Most studies also focus on publicly listed firms, reflecting the accessibility of standardised data. Our study makes a novel and valuable contribution by leveraging a large-scale dataset of private firms - an economically significant yet understudied segment. Using 2,039,222 firm-year observations from 430,800 private firms between 2012 and 2021, we evaluate four machine learning models, five sampling techniques, and two distinct economic periods. Results show that sampling choice strongly influences accuracy and feature relevance, depending on macroeconomic conditions. Importantly, simple interpretable models built on theoretically grounded features (e.g., Altman, 1968) achieve robust predictions, challenging prevailing reliance on complex methods, while Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) consistently outperforms alternatives. By focusing on private firms, the study provides unique insights and underscores methodological choices crucial for reliable bankruptcy prediction.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Inderscience, 2025
Keywords
bankruptcy prediction; data imbalance; machine learning; sampling methods
National Category
Economics and Business
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-48802 (URN)10.1504/ijbaaf.2025.149819 (DOI)2-s2.0-105021876311 (Scopus ID)
Funder
Handelsbanken Research Foundation, P23-0200
Available from: 2025-11-20 Created: 2025-11-20 Last updated: 2025-11-24Bibliographically approved
Hartwig, F., Huq, A. M. & Rudholm, N. (2025). Replicating and extending ‘Voluntary vs mandatory: the role of auditing in constraining corporate tax avoidance in small private firms’. Institute of Retail Economics
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Replicating and extending ‘Voluntary vs mandatory: the role of auditing in constraining corporate tax avoidance in small private firms’
2025 (English)Report (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Many European countries have abolished mandatory audits for small firms to reduce their regulatory burden. In a recent article, Dong et al. (2023) reported that voluntarily audited firms experienced a 19% reduction in their total tax burden compared to mandatorily audited firms following an auditing reform in Sweden, suggesting a causal link between the revised auditing regulation and corporate tax avoidance. In this study, we first replicate Dong et al.’s (2023) results with reasonable accuracy. We then incorporate a series of placebo tests to examine whether their results are causal effects of the reform or spurious correlations. Placebo tests adjusting the timing of the reform, along with tests modifying the size of firms eligible for voluntary audits under the reform, reveal statistically significant reform effects where none should be expected. To further investigate, we conduct an independent analysis of the data, finding that voluntarily audited firms increased their tax payments due to the introduction of the reform, rather than reducing them. 

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Institute of Retail Economics, 2025. p. 42
Series
HFI Working Paper
Keywords
Tax evasion, regulatory reform, earnings management, accounting, auditing, placebo testing, conditional difference-in-difference analysis.
National Category
Business Administration
Research subject
Health-Promoting Work, Crime and social harms
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-46770 (URN)
Funder
Handelsbanken Research Foundation, P23-0312 och P23-0200
Available from: 2025-04-14 Created: 2025-04-14 Last updated: 2025-10-02Bibliographically approved
Hartwig, F., Huq, A. M. & Rudholm, N. (2025). Revision och skatteundandragande i småföretag. Handelns Forskningsinstitut
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Revision och skatteundandragande i småföretag
2025 (Swedish)Report (Other academic)
Abstract [sv]

Den 1 november 2010 avskaffade Alliansregeringen revisionsplikten för mindre aktiebolag och vissa handelsbolag i syfte att minska företagens administrativa börda och stärka deras konkurrenskraft. Reformen skulle leda till ökad tillväxt och sysselsättning.

En studie av Dong m fl. (2023) rapporterar dock att frivillig revision lett till ökat skatteundandragande, där företag som väljer att revidera frivilligt minskar sina skatteinbetalningar med i genomsnitt 15 000 kronor per år jämfört med de som omfattas av obligatorisk revision. Dong m fl. (2023) förklarar resultatet med att möjligheten att välja bort revision har ökat revisorernas benägenhet att tolerera skatteupplägg och minskat deras benägenhet att rapportera oegentligheter.

I denna rapport granskas och replikeras analysen från Dong m fl. (2023) för att säkerställa att deras metod fångar de verkliga reformeffekterna. Rapporten identifierar flera metodologiska problem, särskilt att två av de tre använda måtten på skatteundandragande påverkas av förändringar i företagens tillgångar snarare än av faktiskt skatteundandragande. För att testa detta genomfördes placebotester med fiktiva reformdatum. Dessa tester visade att samma "reformeffekter" kunde observeras även när ingen verklig reform hade skett, vilket ifrågasätter de slutsatser som Dong m fl. (2023) drar.

Genom en alternativ metodik finner denna studie att företag som frivilligt väljer revision snarare ökar sina skatteinbetalningar än minskar dem. Resultaten visar att skatteinbetalningarna ökat med i genomsnitt 2 100 kronor per företag (när den effektiva skattesatsen används som mått på skatteundandragande), och att dessa företag även uppvisar högre vinster än de som fortsatt omfattas av revisionsplikt.

Att de frivilligt reviderade företagen ökar sin effektiva skattesats beror på att såväl skatteinbetalningarna som vinsterna ökar mer för de frivilligt reviderade företagen än de obligatoriskt reviderade efter reformens genomförande, och att ökningen i skatteinbetalningarna är något högre än ökningen i vinsterna. Att frivilligt reviderade företag ökar sina vinster mer än de obligatoriskt reviderade är dels en följd av selektion där det är framgångsrika företag med tillväxtambitioner som väljer att revideras även om man inte måste, dels en följd av att frivilligt reviderade företag får en något lägre kostnad för kapital än sina obligatoriskt reviderade konkurrenter.

Rapportens slutsats är att det inte finns något vetenskapligt stöd för att frivillig revision har lett till ökat skatteundandragande. Istället har reformen haft en positiv tillväxteffekt, vilket borde beaktas i framtida policybeslut. Baserat på resultaten finns goda argument för att fler företag bör få välja bort revision, i linje med Schweiz och andra EU-länder.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Handelns Forskningsinstitut, 2025. p. 38
Series
HFI Forskningsrapport ; 2025:1
Keywords
Skatteundandragande, revision, reglering
National Category
Business Administration
Research subject
Health-Promoting Work, Crime and social harms
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-46543 (URN)
Available from: 2025-02-18 Created: 2025-02-18 Last updated: 2025-10-02Bibliographically approved
Hartwig, F., Huq, A. M. & Rudholm, N. (2025). Risk att forskningen misstar tillväxt för skatteundandragande. Balans : tidskrift för redovisning och revision, 1-9
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Risk att forskningen misstar tillväxt för skatteundandragande
2025 (Swedish)In: Balans : tidskrift för redovisning och revision, ISSN 0346-8208, p. 1-9Article in journal (Other academic) Published
Abstract [sv]

Artikeln belyser att vissa forskningsstudier baserar sina analyser av skatteundandragande på otillförlitliga mått, särskilt i samband med reformer eller andra exogena förändringar som påverkar företag olika beroende på deras storlek. Ett vanligt använt mått är skattebördan, definierad som företagets skatteinbetalningar i förhållande till dess totala tillgångar. Vid analyser av hur skatteundandragandet förändras till följd av en reform kan användningen av detta mått leda till missvisande slutsatser.

Problemet blir särskilt tydligt vid jämförelser mellan företag av olika storlek över tid. Mindre företag tenderar att växa snabbare än större företag, men deras skatteinbetalningar ökar inte alltid i samma takt som tillgångarna eller omsättningen. Detta kan felaktigt tolkas som ett ökat skatteundandragande bland mindre företag, trots att deras skattemässiga beteende i praktiken inte förändrats. Därmed riskerar skattebördan att vara ett missvisande mått vid bedömningar av hur skatteundandragande påverkas över tid av reformer eller andra exogena förändringar.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
FAR, 2025
Keywords
Skatteundandragande, difference in difference, revision, ekonomisk brottslighet, skattebörda
National Category
Business Administration
Research subject
Health-Promoting Work, Crime and social harms
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-46839 (URN)
Funder
Handelsbanken Research Foundation, P23-0312 och P23-0200
Available from: 2025-05-05 Created: 2025-05-05 Last updated: 2025-10-02Bibliographically approved
Huq, A. M., Cieślak, K. & Sundberg, K. (2024). Board governance drivers of corporate sustainability levels in private firms: evidence from Sweden. Sustainability Accounting, Management and Policy Journal, 15(7), 106-132
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Board governance drivers of corporate sustainability levels in private firms: evidence from Sweden
2024 (English)In: Sustainability Accounting, Management and Policy Journal, ISSN 2040-8021, E-ISSN 2040-803X, Vol. 15, no 7, p. 106-132Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to investigate whether board composition affects corporate sustainability (CS) levels in private firms. Additionally, the study examines a potential interplay between CS levels and CS reporting, and the impact of EU Directive 2014 / 95/EU (Non-Financial Reporting Directive [NFRD]) on resources spent on CS.

Design/methodology/approach

The authors surveyed the chief executive officers (CEOs), chief financial officers (CFOs) and Environment Officers of Swedish private firms subject to NFRD, receiving 149 valid responses (a response rate 24%). The authors coded the responses using van Marrewijk and Werre’s (2003) CS levels framework. The levels are Pre-CS, Compliance-driven, Profit-driven, Caring, Synergistic and Holistic. The study then explained the CS levels with board characteristics.

Findings

While on average the sample firms have a profit-driven CS level, the authors find that CS level is positively driven by female Chairs, female CEOs and external CEOs. Early voluntary reporting before NFRD does not explain the CS level. On adoption of the NFRD, mandatory reporters increased resources spent on CS activities and CS reporting more than early voluntary-reporters. Nonetheless, slightly over half of the sample firms reported no significant impact of the NFRD on resources spent on CS.

Practical implications

The findings may be useful for stakeholders interested in corporate governance and CS levels. Also, the findings support further regulation such as EU Directive 2022/2464 (Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive [CSRD]).

Social implications

In private firms, female leaders are likely to play a significant role in driving altruistically motivated CS practices.Originality/valueThe focus is on private firms in Sweden which, unlike those in other jurisdictions, were subject to NFRD. Methodologically, the use of a survey provides an alternative to the previous heavy reliance on archival research.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Emerald, 2024
Keywords
Corporate sustainability levels, Private firms, Board diversity, Female CEO, Female Chair, External CEO, Sustainability regulations
National Category
Economics and Business
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-46170 (URN)10.1108/sampj-04-2024-0402 (DOI)001370942400001 ()2-s2.0-85212851476 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2024-12-13 Created: 2024-12-13 Last updated: 2025-10-02Bibliographically approved
Huq, A. M. (2024). Corporate governance drivers of sustainability ambitions in private firms – evidence from Sweden. In: : . Paper presented at 2024 CIMaR conference, Högskolan i Gävle, 10-13 juni 2024.
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Corporate governance drivers of sustainability ambitions in private firms – evidence from Sweden
2024 (English)Conference paper, Oral presentation with published abstract (Refereed)
National Category
Business Administration
Research subject
Health-Promoting Work, Crime and social harms
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-48638 (URN)
Conference
2024 CIMaR conference, Högskolan i Gävle, 10-13 juni 2024
Available from: 2025-10-09 Created: 2025-10-09 Last updated: 2025-10-13Bibliographically approved
Huq, A. M. (2024). Do firm-level corporate governance factors change the fate of financially distressed private firms?. In: : . Paper presented at Orlando Annual Business Research Conference, Orlando, Florida, USA, 15-17 August 2024.
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Do firm-level corporate governance factors change the fate of financially distressed private firms?
2024 (English)Conference paper, Oral presentation with published abstract (Refereed)
Abstract [en]

Purpose: This paper examines how firm-level governance factors influence the fate of financially distressed private firms. In other words, it explores why some firms recover from financial distress while others go bankrupt.

Design/methodology/approach: Our analysis is based on 152 740 private limited firms for the years 2002-2022 comprising of 994 870 firm-year observations. We construct the financial distress measure following Bruynseels et al. (2011) strategy. During the sample period, 134 107 unique firms were in financial distress in t and 14 521 filed for bankruptcy in t+2, 85 296 firms turnaround for two consecutive years (i.e., t+1 & t+2), 34 290 firms continued to be in financial distress, and 18 633 firms were never in financial distress. We use logistic regression to estimate the likelihood of factors to capture firms’ turnaround.

Findings: After controlling for firm-level time invariant factors, industry cycles, time-trends, profitability, and leverage, we find that a change in CEO and Chair increases the probability of firm to turnaround by 16% and 54% respectively. Duality reduces the probability of turnaround by 7%. Additional analysis shows that a change in the gender of the CEO do not affect the chances of turnaround. On the other hand, a change of female to male Chair increases the probability of turnaround by 18%. When considering age, a change to younger CEO increases the probability of turnaround by 9% while the effect of change in the age of the Chair do not significantly affect the outcome variable.

 Practical implications: 

The results have practical implications for financially distressed private firms and indicate that changing the CEO and chairperson appears to be the most effective strategy to turn around from the distress situation. This might be due to the fact that new leadership often brings fresh perspectives, which can facilitate the implementation of restructuring measures.

National Category
Business Administration
Research subject
Health-Promoting Work, Crime and social harms
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-48637 (URN)
Conference
Orlando Annual Business Research Conference, Orlando, Florida, USA, 15-17 August 2024
Available from: 2025-10-09 Created: 2025-10-09 Last updated: 2025-10-13Bibliographically approved
Organisations
Identifiers
ORCID iD: ORCID iD iconorcid.org/0000-0003-2952-7327

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