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Experimental Investigation of Wall Confluent Jets on Transparent Large-Space Building Envelopes: Part 1—Application in Heating Greenhouses
University of Gävle, Faculty of Engineering and Sustainable Development, Department of Building Engineering, Energy Systems and Sustainability Science, Energy Systems and Building Technology.ORCID iD: 0000-0003-1215-9388
University of Gävle, Faculty of Engineering and Sustainable Development, Department of Building Engineering, Energy Systems and Sustainability Science, Energy Systems and Building Technology.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-2171-3013
University of Gävle, Faculty of Engineering and Sustainable Development, Department of Building Engineering, Energy Systems and Sustainability Science, Energy Systems and Building Technology. Linköpings universitet.ORCID iD: 0000-0003-3472-4210
2024 (English)In: Energies, E-ISSN 1996-1073, Vol. 17, no 24, article id 6217Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Insulating building envelopes is crucial for maintaining indoor thermal comfort, particularlyin large-space enclosures like greenhouses having transparent envelopes. Transparent envelopesallow natural light but challenge temperature regulation due to their low thermal mass and highU-values, which enable significant heat transfer between indoor and outdoor environments. This fieldstudy aims to experimentally investigate whether warm wall confluent jets (WCJs) can maintain therequired indoor climate conditions in a greenhouse exposed to dynamic meteorological conditions inwinter. It analyzed the impact of the airflow rate, number of nozzle rows, and room air temperaturesetpoint on WCJ heating performance on the ceiling, external wall, and room air. Measurementswere performed with thermocouples and constant current anemometers, and the response surfacemethodology evaluated the effect of design variables on WCJ flow, thermal behavior, and the indoorenvironment. The results show that WCJs provided recommended air velocities and temperaturesindoors, with the airflow rate having the strongest effect on flow and thermal behavior, while thenumber of nozzle rows had a moderate effect. This study developed response surface models relatedto room air temperature, ceiling surface temperature, external wall temperature, and supply airtemperature. Supply temperatures between 27 ◦C and 40 ◦C suggest using low-exergy heat sources,like industrial waste heat, to sustain greenhouse operations during winter.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
MDPI , 2024. Vol. 17, no 24, article id 6217
Keywords [en]
wall confluent jets, heating season; experimental field study; Box–Behnken design; response surface methodology; indoor environment; greenhouse heating
National Category
Civil Engineering
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-46189DOI: 10.3390/en17246217ISI: 001387774900001Scopus ID: 2-s2.0-85213242700OAI: oai:DiVA.org:hig-46189DiVA, id: diva2:1921752
Funder
Swedish Energy Agency, 52686-1Available from: 2024-12-17 Created: 2024-12-17 Last updated: 2026-05-07Bibliographically approved
In thesis
1. Experimental evaluation of the thermal performance of wall confluent jets for greenhouse climate control
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Experimental evaluation of the thermal performance of wall confluent jets for greenhouse climate control
2026 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Greenhouse cultivation in cold climates is highly energy-intensive due to substantial heating demands driven by large transparent envelopes, strong climatic coupling to the outdoor environment, and the challenge of maintaining a uniform indoor thermal environment. This study investigated the thermal performance of wall confluent jets (WCJ) heating and cooling systems for year-round greenhouse climate control, with a focus on harnessing low-temperature heat sources. It aimed to develop practical knowledge and predictive tools for designing WCJ systems that maintain stable greenhouse thermal environments under variable climatic conditions while minimizing primary energy use. This study adopted a multi-method approach, including experimental, statistical, and numerical methods, to assess the flow behavior, thermal performance, and techno-economic performance of the WCJ system. Constant-current anemometers measured WCJ air velocity and temperature, thermocouples measured air and surface temperatures, and pyranometers measured solar radiation. Statistical analysis using Response Surface Methodology aided experimental design and produced predictive response surface (RS) models. Building energy simulation using IDA ICE evaluated the techno-economic and energy performance of the WCJ heating system.

The results showed that the WCJ preserved its fundamental flow behavior under both isothermal and non-isothermal conditions and maintained recommended near-floor air velocities of 0.3–0.9 m/s in the greenhouse. The study developed second-order RS models to predict velocity decay, surface temperature, and inlet and indoor air temperatures. The WCJ heating system maintained spatially uniform indoor temperatures under varying climatic conditions. WCJ supplied at temperatures of 27–40°C during the winter demonstrated potential for use with low-temperature heat sources (<50°C), thereby reducing primary energy demand. During summer and autumn experiments, WCJ inlet temperatures of 14–25 °C maintained indoor temperatures within ±1.5 °C of the prescribed setpoint. Increasing the indoor temperature setpoint by 4 °C reduced cooling demand by 25%. External wall shading decreased indoor air temperature by 35%. The study identified airflow rate, shading, and indoor temperature setpoint as key parameters governing WCJ thermal performance. The effective thermal transmittance attributable to WCJ heat transfer characteristics was estimated at 2.69 W/m2·K, based on field measurements taken during the wintertime. Techno-economic analysis demonstrated the potential of using low-exergy heat sources in the WCJ heating system, with heating demand ranging from 204.5 to 571.6 kWh/m2, driven by outdoor climate and indoor temperature setpoints. Coupling WCJ with ground-source heat pumps reduces final energy use by approximately 50% compared with district heating, lowering costs from 198-534.2 SEK/m² to 35.7-89.9 SEK/m². Overall, the study presents WCJ technology as a key primary energy-saving and climate-resilient solution for sustainable, year-round greenhouse climate control and low-carbon agriculture.

Abstract [sv]

Växthusodling i kalla klimat är mycket energikrävande till följd av stora värmebehov orsakade av omfattande transparenta klimatskal, stark klimatkoppling till utomhusmiljön samt svårigheten att upprätthålla ett homogent termiskt inomhusklimat. Denna studie undersökte den termiska prestandan hos värme- och kylsystem baserade på väggkonfluenta jetströmmar (WCJ) för året-runt-reglering av växthusklimat, med särskilt fokus på utnyttjande av lågtempererade värmekällor. Syftet var att utveckla praktisk kunskap och prediktiva verktyg för dimensionering och implementering av WCJ-system som kan upprätthålla stabila termiska förhållanden i växthus under varierande klimatförhållanden samtidigt som användningen av primärenergi minimeras.

Studien tillämpade en multimodell metodansats bestående av experimentella, statistiska och numeriska metoder för att analysera WCJ-systemets strömningsbeteende, termiska prestanda samt teknoekonomisk effektivitet. Konstantströms anemometrar användes för mätning av WCJ-lufthastighet och lufttemperatur, termoelement för mätning av luft- och yttemperatur samt pyranometrar för registrering av solinstrålning. Statistisk analys med hjälp av Response Surface Methodology (RSM) användes för experimentdesign och utveckling av prediktiva responssurfacemodeller (RS-modeller). Byggenergisimuleringar i IDA ICE användes för att utvärdera WCJ-värmesystemets energi- och kostnadsprestanda.

Resultaten visade att WCJ-systemet bibehöll sitt grundläggande strömningsbeteende under både isotermiska och icke-isotermiska förhållanden samt upprätthöll rekommenderade lufthastigheter nära golvnivån på 0,3–0,9 m/s i växthuset. Studien utvecklade andragradens RS-modeller för prediktion av hastighetsavklingning, yttemperatur samt tillopps- och inomhuslufttemperaturer. WCJ-värmesystemet upprätthöll rumsligt homogena inomhustemperaturer under varierande klimatförhållanden. WCJ-system med tilluftstemperaturer mellan 27 och 40 °C under vinterförhållanden visade stor potential för användning tillsammans med lågtempererade värmekällor (<50 °C), vilket minskar behovet av primärenergi. Under sommar- och höstexperiment upprätthöll WCJ-tilluftstemperaturer på 14–25 °C inomhustemperaturen inom ±1,5 °C från det föreskrivna börvärdet. En höjning av inomhustemperaturens börvärde med 4 °C reducerade kylbehovet med 25 %, medan extern väggskuggning minskade inomhuslufttemperaturen med 35 %. Studien identifierade luftflöde, skuggning och temperaturbörvärde som de mest betydelsefulla parametrarna för WCJ-systemets termiska prestanda. Den effektiva värmegenomgångskoefficienten, relaterad till WCJ-systemets värmeöverföringsegenskaper, uppskattades till 2,69 W/(m²·K) baserat på vintermätningar i fält.

Tekno-ekonomisk analys visade att användning av lågexergivärmekällor i WCJ-värmesystemet har betydande potential, där värmebehovet varierade mellan 204,5 och 571,6 kWh/m² beroende på utomhusklimat och inomhustemperaturens börvärde. Integration av WCJ-system med bergvärmepumpar reducerade den slutliga energianvändningen med cirka 50 % jämfört med fjärrvärme och minskade energikostnaderna från 198–534,2 SEK/m² till 35,7–89,9 SEK/m². Sammantaget visar studien att WCJ-teknik utgör en energieffektiv och klimatresilient lösning för hållbar, året-runt-baserad växthusklimatstyrning och koldioxidsnål jordbruksproduktion.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Gävle: Gävle University Press, 2026. p. 82
Series
Doctoral thesis ; 77
Keywords
Wall confluent jets, Wall confluent core zone, Experimental study, Simula-tion study, Parametric study, Greenhouse heating, Greenhouse cooling, Re-sponse surface methodology, Indoor environment, Greenhouse envelope shading, Väggkonfluenta jetstrålar, Väggkonfluent kärnzon, Experimentell studie, Simuleringsstudie, Parametrisk studie, Växthusuppvärmning, Växthuskyl-ning, Responsytemetodik, Inomhusmiljö, Skuggning av växthusets kli-matska
National Category
Energy Systems
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-49783 (URN)978-91-90111-01-7 (ISBN)978-91-90111-02-4 (ISBN)
Public defence
2026-09-04, Kungsbäcksvägen 47, Gävle, 09:25 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2026-06-08 Created: 2026-05-05 Last updated: 2026-09-15Bibliographically approved

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Choonya, GasperKabanshi, AlanMoshfegh, Bahram

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