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Experimental evaluation of the thermal performance of wall confluent jets for greenhouse climate control
University of Gävle, Faculty of Engineering and Sustainable Development, Department of Building Engineering, Energy Systems and Sustainability Science, Energy Systems and Building Technology.ORCID iD: 0000-0003-1215-9388
2026 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Description
Abstract [en]

Greenhouse cultivation in cold climates is highly energy-intensive due to substantial heating demands driven by large transparent envelopes, strong climatic coupling to the outdoor environment, and the challenge of maintaining a uniform indoor thermal environment. This study investigated the thermal performance of wall confluent jets (WCJ) heating and cooling systems for year-round greenhouse climate control, with a focus on harnessing low-temperature heat sources. It aimed to develop practical knowledge and predictive tools for designing WCJ systems that maintain stable greenhouse thermal environments under variable climatic conditions while minimizing primary energy use. This study adopted a multi-method approach, including experimental, statistical, and numerical methods, to assess the flow behavior, thermal performance, and techno-economic performance of the WCJ system. Constant-current anemometers measured WCJ air velocity and temperature, thermocouples measured air and surface temperatures, and pyranometers measured solar radiation. Statistical analysis using Response Surface Methodology aided experimental design and produced predictive response surface (RS) models. Building energy simulation using IDA ICE evaluated the techno-economic and energy performance of the WCJ heating system.

The results showed that the WCJ preserved its fundamental flow behavior under both isothermal and non-isothermal conditions and maintained recommended near-floor air velocities of 0.3–0.9 m/s in the greenhouse. The study developed second-order RS models to predict velocity decay, surface temperature, and inlet and indoor air temperatures. The WCJ heating system maintained spatially uniform indoor temperatures under varying climatic conditions. WCJ supplied at temperatures of 27–40°C during the winter demonstrated potential for use with low-temperature heat sources (<50°C), thereby reducing primary energy demand. During summer and autumn experiments, WCJ inlet temperatures of 14–25 °C maintained indoor temperatures within ±1.5 °C of the prescribed setpoint. Increasing the indoor temperature setpoint by 4 °C reduced cooling demand by 25%. External wall shading decreased indoor air temperature by 35%. The study identified airflow rate, shading, and indoor temperature setpoint as key parameters governing WCJ thermal performance. The effective thermal transmittance attributable to WCJ heat transfer characteristics was estimated at 2.69 W/m2·K, based on field measurements taken during the wintertime. Techno-economic analysis demonstrated the potential of using low-exergy heat sources in the WCJ heating system, with heating demand ranging from 204.5 to 571.6 kWh/m2, driven by outdoor climate and indoor temperature setpoints. Coupling WCJ with ground-source heat pumps reduces final energy use by approximately 50% compared with district heating, lowering costs from 198-534.2 SEK/m² to 35.7-89.9 SEK/m². Overall, the study presents WCJ technology as a key primary energy-saving and climate-resilient solution for sustainable, year-round greenhouse climate control and low-carbon agriculture.

Abstract [sv]

Växthusodling i kalla klimat är mycket energikrävande till följd av stora värmebehov orsakade av omfattande transparenta klimatskal, stark klimatkoppling till utomhusmiljön samt svårigheten att upprätthålla ett homogent termiskt inomhusklimat. Denna studie undersökte den termiska prestandan hos värme- och kylsystem baserade på väggkonfluenta jetströmmar (WCJ) för året-runt-reglering av växthusklimat, med särskilt fokus på utnyttjande av lågtempererade värmekällor. Syftet var att utveckla praktisk kunskap och prediktiva verktyg för dimensionering och implementering av WCJ-system som kan upprätthålla stabila termiska förhållanden i växthus under varierande klimatförhållanden samtidigt som användningen av primärenergi minimeras.

Studien tillämpade en multimodell metodansats bestående av experimentella, statistiska och numeriska metoder för att analysera WCJ-systemets strömningsbeteende, termiska prestanda samt teknoekonomisk effektivitet. Konstantströms anemometrar användes för mätning av WCJ-lufthastighet och lufttemperatur, termoelement för mätning av luft- och yttemperatur samt pyranometrar för registrering av solinstrålning. Statistisk analys med hjälp av Response Surface Methodology (RSM) användes för experimentdesign och utveckling av prediktiva responssurfacemodeller (RS-modeller). Byggenergisimuleringar i IDA ICE användes för att utvärdera WCJ-värmesystemets energi- och kostnadsprestanda.

Resultaten visade att WCJ-systemet bibehöll sitt grundläggande strömningsbeteende under både isotermiska och icke-isotermiska förhållanden samt upprätthöll rekommenderade lufthastigheter nära golvnivån på 0,3–0,9 m/s i växthuset. Studien utvecklade andragradens RS-modeller för prediktion av hastighetsavklingning, yttemperatur samt tillopps- och inomhuslufttemperaturer. WCJ-värmesystemet upprätthöll rumsligt homogena inomhustemperaturer under varierande klimatförhållanden. WCJ-system med tilluftstemperaturer mellan 27 och 40 °C under vinterförhållanden visade stor potential för användning tillsammans med lågtempererade värmekällor (<50 °C), vilket minskar behovet av primärenergi. Under sommar- och höstexperiment upprätthöll WCJ-tilluftstemperaturer på 14–25 °C inomhustemperaturen inom ±1,5 °C från det föreskrivna börvärdet. En höjning av inomhustemperaturens börvärde med 4 °C reducerade kylbehovet med 25 %, medan extern väggskuggning minskade inomhuslufttemperaturen med 35 %. Studien identifierade luftflöde, skuggning och temperaturbörvärde som de mest betydelsefulla parametrarna för WCJ-systemets termiska prestanda. Den effektiva värmegenomgångskoefficienten, relaterad till WCJ-systemets värmeöverföringsegenskaper, uppskattades till 2,69 W/(m²·K) baserat på vintermätningar i fält.

Tekno-ekonomisk analys visade att användning av lågexergivärmekällor i WCJ-värmesystemet har betydande potential, där värmebehovet varierade mellan 204,5 och 571,6 kWh/m² beroende på utomhusklimat och inomhustemperaturens börvärde. Integration av WCJ-system med bergvärmepumpar reducerade den slutliga energianvändningen med cirka 50 % jämfört med fjärrvärme och minskade energikostnaderna från 198–534,2 SEK/m² till 35,7–89,9 SEK/m². Sammantaget visar studien att WCJ-teknik utgör en energieffektiv och klimatresilient lösning för hållbar, året-runt-baserad växthusklimatstyrning och koldioxidsnål jordbruksproduktion.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Gävle: Gävle University Press , 2026. , p. 82
Series
Doctoral thesis ; 77
Keywords [en]
Wall confluent jets, Wall confluent core zone, Experimental study, Simula-tion study, Parametric study, Greenhouse heating, Greenhouse cooling, Re-sponse surface methodology, Indoor environment, Greenhouse envelope shading, Väggkonfluenta jetstrålar, Väggkonfluent kärnzon, Experimentell studie, Simuleringsstudie, Parametrisk studie, Växthusuppvärmning, Växthuskyl-ning, Responsytemetodik, Inomhusmiljö, Skuggning av växthusets kli-matska
National Category
Energy Systems
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-49783ISBN: 978-91-90111-01-7 (print)ISBN: 978-91-90111-02-4 (electronic)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:hig-49783DiVA, id: diva2:2057644
Public defence
2026-09-04, Kungsbäcksvägen 47, Gävle, 09:25 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2026-06-08 Created: 2026-05-05 Last updated: 2026-06-08
List of papers
1. Heating of Cold Wall with Confluent Jets in Large Space Enclosures: Application in Greenhouse Premises
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Heating of Cold Wall with Confluent Jets in Large Space Enclosures: Application in Greenhouse Premises
2023 (English)In: Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Building Energy and Environment COBEE 2022, Springer , 2023, p. 1925-1933Conference paper, Published paper (Refereed)
Abstract [en]

A parametrical investigation has been carried out to explore the velocity and temperature behaviour of wall confluent jets (WCJ) when used to heat and ventilate a test room, which mimics a greenhouse. This study assessed how the outdoor air temperature and supply air temperature affect the velocity and temperature profiles of the WCJ. The study also evaluated how WCJ can be used to eliminate film-wise condensation on greenhouse enclosure surfaces. Constant current anemometers (CCA) and T-type thermocouples were used to measure air velocity and temperature of the WCJ, air and surface temperature in the cooling chamber and test room. This study found that the supply air temperature affects the magnitude of the WCJ’s temperature in each region but the pattern (shape) of the dimensionless temperature is unaffected. The study also showed that both magnitude and pattern of the dimensionless temperature profiles are unaffected by the outdoor air temperature in all regions of the WCJ. The dimensionless velocity profiles under isothermal and non-isothermal were similar, but the magnitude of the profiles increased as the supply air temperature increased in the merging and impinging regions of the WCJ. WCJ formed a boundary layer of warm fluid on the nearby wall; thus, can be used to reduce condensation on the inner surfaces of the greenhouse enclosure.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Springer, 2023
Series
Environmental Science and Engineering, ISSN 1863-5520
Keywords
Constant current anemometers; Experimental study; Greenhouse heating and ventilation system; Parametric study; Wall confluent jets
National Category
Civil Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-43112 (URN)10.1007/978-981-19-9822-5_202 (DOI)2-s2.0-85172729357 (Scopus ID)9789811998218 (ISBN)
Conference
5th International Conference on Building Energy and Environment, COBEE 2022, Montreal, Canada, 25-29 July 2022
Available from: 2023-10-09 Created: 2023-10-09 Last updated: 2026-05-07Bibliographically approved
2. Experimental investigations of flow and thermal behavior of wall confluent jets as a heating device for large-space enclosures
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Experimental investigations of flow and thermal behavior of wall confluent jets as a heating device for large-space enclosures
2023 (English)In: Building and Environment, ISSN 0360-1323, E-ISSN 1873-684X, Vol. 236, article id 110282Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

The study aimed to explore the effects of inlet air temperature, outdoor air temperature, inlet bulk velocity, and the number of nozzles on wall confluent jets (WCJ) propagating along an external cold wall in a large space enclosure such as a greenhouse. A combination of experimental study and Response surface methodology has been used to predict the flow and thermal behavior of the WCJ for the studied cases. Box-Behnken design was used to determine the case matrix for four of the above-mentioned vital variables for non-isothermal cases. The experimental study employed constant current anemometers to measure the velocity and temperature of the WCJ. Results showed that the WCJ attached to the wall under both isothermal and non-isothermal conditions. This flow behavior suggests that the WCJ can be used to heat the external facades of large-space enclosures. All the stated variables were critical to the decay factor and decay rate of maximum velocity, albeit at varying levels. The velocity decayed faster with an increase in the inlet bulk velocity and outdoor air temperature. It also decayed faster as the number of nozzles and inlet air temperature decreased. The external wall surface temperature and the wall-heating effect increased as the momentum of the jet increased. The surface temperature on the external wall was most influenced by the inlet air temperature and least by the number of nozzles. Correlations of the second-order polynomial for the Response surface models that estimate the rate of velocity decay and temperature on the external wall were obtained.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier, 2023
Keywords
Experimental study; Parametric study; Wall confluent jets; Core zone of the wall confluent jets; Response surface methodology; Large-space enclosure heating
National Category
Energy Systems
Research subject
Sustainable Urban Development
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-41587 (URN)10.1016/j.buildenv.2023.110282 (DOI)000982766300001 ()2-s2.0-85152428328 (Scopus ID)
Funder
European Regional Development Fund (ERDF)
Available from: 2023-04-13 Created: 2023-04-13 Last updated: 2026-05-07Bibliographically approved
3. Experimental Investigation of Wall Confluent Jets on Transparent Large-Space Building Envelopes: Part 1—Application in Heating Greenhouses
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Experimental Investigation of Wall Confluent Jets on Transparent Large-Space Building Envelopes: Part 1—Application in Heating Greenhouses
2024 (English)In: Energies, E-ISSN 1996-1073, Vol. 17, no 24, article id 6217Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Insulating building envelopes is crucial for maintaining indoor thermal comfort, particularlyin large-space enclosures like greenhouses having transparent envelopes. Transparent envelopesallow natural light but challenge temperature regulation due to their low thermal mass and highU-values, which enable significant heat transfer between indoor and outdoor environments. This fieldstudy aims to experimentally investigate whether warm wall confluent jets (WCJs) can maintain therequired indoor climate conditions in a greenhouse exposed to dynamic meteorological conditions inwinter. It analyzed the impact of the airflow rate, number of nozzle rows, and room air temperaturesetpoint on WCJ heating performance on the ceiling, external wall, and room air. Measurementswere performed with thermocouples and constant current anemometers, and the response surfacemethodology evaluated the effect of design variables on WCJ flow, thermal behavior, and the indoorenvironment. The results show that WCJs provided recommended air velocities and temperaturesindoors, with the airflow rate having the strongest effect on flow and thermal behavior, while thenumber of nozzle rows had a moderate effect. This study developed response surface models relatedto room air temperature, ceiling surface temperature, external wall temperature, and supply airtemperature. Supply temperatures between 27 ◦C and 40 ◦C suggest using low-exergy heat sources,like industrial waste heat, to sustain greenhouse operations during winter.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
MDPI, 2024
Keywords
wall confluent jets, heating season; experimental field study; Box–Behnken design; response surface methodology; indoor environment; greenhouse heating
National Category
Civil Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-46189 (URN)10.3390/en17246217 (DOI)001387774900001 ()2-s2.0-85213242700 (Scopus ID)
Funder
Swedish Energy Agency, 52686-1
Available from: 2024-12-17 Created: 2024-12-17 Last updated: 2026-05-07Bibliographically approved
4. Experimental Investigation of Wall Confluent Jets on Transparent Large-Space Building Envelopes: Part 2—Application in Cooling Greenhouses
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Experimental Investigation of Wall Confluent Jets on Transparent Large-Space Building Envelopes: Part 2—Application in Cooling Greenhouses
2026 (English)In: Energies, E-ISSN 1996-1073, Vol. 19, no 4, article id 875Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

This study experimentally evaluated the performance of a wall confluent jet (WCJ) cooling system in a greenhouse under real summer and autumn weather conditions. It examined the effects of indoor air temperature setpoint (Tspt), number of nozzle rows (n) on the WCJ diffuser, and external wall shading on WCJ’s cooling performance. Thermocouples and constant-current anemometers measured air and surface temperatures and air velocity, while pyranometers measured solar radiation. The WCJ system dynamically regulated inlet air temperature between 14 °C and 25 °C to counter solar and conductive heat gains, maintaining indoor air temperature within ±1.5 °C of the setpoint. Increasing Tspt by 4 °C reduced inlet cooling demand by 25% but increased indoor air temperature by 20–25% and raised ceiling, wall, and floor surface temperatures by 17%, 20%, and 16%, respectively. Increasing n reduced surface temperatures by up to 8% and indoor air temperature by 6%. External wall shading reduced solar heat gain, lowering interior surface temperatures by 10–30%, peak and mean indoor air temperatures by up to 35% and 15%, and net power peaks by 40%. Autumn conditions reduced cooling loads by 50% relative to summer. Overall, WCJ cooling demonstrates strong potential as an alternative or complementary system for greenhouse thermal regulation without increasing primary energy demand.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
MDPI, 2026
Keywords
wall confluent jets; experimental field study; greenhouse cooling; indoor environment; greenhouse envelope shading
National Category
Energy Systems
Research subject
Sustainable Urban Development
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-49290 (URN)10.3390/en19040875 (DOI)001700079100001 ()2-s2.0-105031052452 (Scopus ID)
Funder
Swedish Energy Agency, 52686-1
Available from: 2026-02-09 Created: 2026-02-09 Last updated: 2026-06-08Bibliographically approved

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