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A state-of-the-art review on connection systems, rolling shear performance, and sustainability assessment of cross-laminated timber
University of Gävle, Faculty of Engineering and Sustainable Development, Department of Building Engineering, Energy Systems and Sustainability Science, Energy Systems and Building Technology.ORCID iD: 0009-0000-0380-386X
University of Gävle, Faculty of Engineering and Sustainable Development, Department of Building Engineering, Energy Systems and Sustainability Science, Energy Systems and Building Technology.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-9431-7820
University of Gävle, Faculty of Engineering and Sustainable Development, Department of Building Engineering, Energy Systems and Sustainability Science, Energy Systems and Building Technology.ORCID iD: 0000-0003-2023-689x
University of Gävle, Faculty of Engineering and Sustainable Development, Department of Building Engineering, Energy Systems and Sustainability Science, Environmental Science.ORCID iD: 0000-0001-8413-3975
2024 (English)In: Engineering structures, ISSN 0141-0296, E-ISSN 1873-7323, Vol. 317, article id 118552Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Cross-laminated timber (CLT) is one of the most sustainable, robust, and green building materials nowadays and is normally used for walls, floors, or roofs. The number of studies on CLT has increased significantly since 2010, which shows the acceptance and needs of CLT. Connection systems, rolling shear performance, and sustainability are the popular and main research topics within CLT, including wooden connections, metallic connections, adhesive and rod connections, aspect ratio, bonding performance, life cycle assessment, carbon emission, and environmental impact. Based on these three branches, the current study conducts a literature review on CLT. This review article aims to provide a valuable view and better understanding of CLT, which are linked to (1) promoting the usage of CLT and (2) summarizing the weaknesses of the CLT’s research. This article presents a full background of the CLT research and gives potential research directions for CLT as a structural material. It revealed that the design and analytical methodologies for novel timber and steel connections are the main trends. As for the CLT’s rolling shear performance, standardized testing protocol, environmental impact, and bonding quality need further development. Furthermore, the data collection, selection, and influence of different policies are important for the CLT’s sustainability assessment.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier , 2024. Vol. 317, article id 118552
Keywords [en]
Connection system; Cross-laminated timber; Literature review; Rolling shear performance; Sustainable assessment
National Category
Civil Engineering
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-45276DOI: 10.1016/j.engstruct.2024.118552ISI: 001279203600001Scopus ID: 2-s2.0-85199290412OAI: oai:DiVA.org:hig-45276DiVA, id: diva2:1885973
Available from: 2024-07-29 Created: 2024-07-29 Last updated: 2026-04-28Bibliographically approved
In thesis
1. Performance of Engineered Timber Floor Systems: Structural Behavior and Environmental Impacts
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Performance of Engineered Timber Floor Systems: Structural Behavior and Environmental Impacts
2026 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Cross-laminated timber (CLT) slab systems rely on edge connections to turn prefabricated individual components into continuous systems. This thesis proposes and evaluates six adhesive-free timber edge connections (Belt-BC, Tshape-TS, Grove and tongue-GT, Grove-GC, Double surface-DS, Half lapped-HL) against a screw-spline CLT reference and a reinforced-concrete (RC) slab, integrating structural performance and life cycle assessment (LCA). In the LCA assessment, adhesive-free CLT slab systems without connection (AFCLT1: dovetail-jointed with service gaps; AFCLT2: dowel-laminated; and AFCLT3: solid dovetail without internal gaps) were also studied under a cradle-to-cradle framework (includes production A1-A5, partly use B1, End-of-life (EOL) C1-C4, and D modules) with a focus on ten impact categories: abiotic depletion (ADP), global warming potential (GWP), ozone depletion (ODP), human toxicity (HTP), freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity (FAETP), marine aquatic ecotoxicity (MAETP), terrestrial ecotoxicity (TETP), photochemical ozone creation (POCP), acidification (AP), and eutrophication (EP). The LCA studies are assumed to have a 50-year span of service life, and timber slabs are recycled and reused at the EOL stage. Additionally, four-point bending on glulam specimens, together with a validated FE framework establishes load capacity, displacement, effective stiffness (EIeff), strength, ductility and failure mechanisms for the timber floors with edge connections. This thesis unifies experimentally validated structural performance with LCA to show that adhesive-free edge connections can deliver competitive structural performance while materially lowering embodied impact relative to steel and RC.

Structurally, ultimate loads of CLT panels with the studied edge connections span 2.85–11.74 kN. Parametric analysis identifies clear levers: DS benefits from longer tongues, suitable dowels diameter, and additional dowels; for HL, preserving the upper-part thickness yields and optimizing dowel number/layout could increase capacity. A twin narrow-plate GC layout boosts EIeff and capacity substantially relative to a single wide plate, demonstrating rotation control as a stiffness driver.

Environmentally (function unit defined as 1 m2 top surface area of slab including edge connection), timber systems decisively outperform RC across most indicators; for GWP, CLT solutions were ten times lower than RC. Among adhesive-free CLT panels, AFCLT2 is consistently the lowest-impact solution, while AFCLT3 is highest within adhesive-free products due to high mass. Furthermore, electricity-mix sensitivity changes environmental performance’s magnitudes but not the ranking.

The contributions of this thesis are: (i) a validated modeling-and-testing basis for six connection families; (ii) actionable design rules with quantified sensitivities for geometry, dowel size/number, and plate layout; and (iii) an LCA framework that links connection choices to cradle-to-cradle outcomes, including electricity-mix and EOL effects. These results give designers and standard makers glue-free CLT floors that are robust, repairable, and compatible with circular construction, and provide a template for optimizing structural and environmental performance in future mass-timber systems.

Abstract [sv]

Korslimmade träskivsystem (CLT) är beroende av kantförband för att omvandla prefabricerade enskilda komponenter till kontinuerliga system. Denna avhandling föreslår och utvärderar sex limfria kantförband i trä (Belt-BC, Tshape-TS, Grove and tongue-GT, Grove-GC, Double surface-DS, Half lapped-HL) i jämförelse med en skruv–spline-baserad CLT-referens samt en armerad betongplatta (RC), där strukturell prestanda och livscykelanalys (LCA) integreras. I LCA-bedömningen studerades även limfria CLT-plattsystem utan förband (AFCLT1: laxstjärtssammanfogad med serviceglipor; AFCLT2: dymlingslaminerad; och AFCLT3: massiv laxstjärt utan interna glipor) inom ett cradle-to-cradle-ramverk (inklusive produktion A1–A5, delvis bruksskede B1, end-of-life (EOL) C1–C4 samt modul D), med fokus på tio påverkningskategorier: abiotisk resursutarmning (ADP), global uppvärmningspotential (GWP), ozonnedbrytning (ODP), humantoxicitet (HTP), sötvattenekotoxicitet (FAETP), marin ekotoxicitet (MAETP), terrestrisk ekotoxicitet (TETP), fotokemisk ozonbildning (POCP), försurning (AP) och övergödning (EP). LCA-studierna antas ha en brukstid på 50 år, och träbjälklag återvinns och återanvänds i EOL-skedet. Därtill etablerar fyrpunktsböjning på limträprovkroppar, tillsammans med ett validerat FE-ramverk, bärförmåga, nedböjning, effektiv böjstyvhet (EIeff), hållfasthet, duktilitet och brottmekanismer för träbjälklag med kantförband. Avhandlingen förenar experimentellt validerad strukturell prestanda med LCA och visar att limfria kantförband kan ge konkurrenskraftig bärförmåga samtidigt som den inbyggda miljöpåverkan kan minska väsentligt jämfört med stål och armerad betong.

Strukturellt varierar brottlasten för CLT-paneler med de studerade kantförbanden mellan 2.85–11.74 kN. Parameterstudier identifierar tydliga styrparametrar: DS gynnas av längre spontar, lämplig dymlingsdiameter och extradymlingar; för HL ger bibehållen tjocklek i överdelen samt optimering av antal och layout av dymlingar potential att öka bärförmågan. En GC-layout med två smala plåtar ökar EIeff och bärförmågan avsevärt jämfört med en enda bredplåt, vilket visar att rotationskontroll är en drivande faktor för styvhet.

Miljömässigt (funktionell enhet definierad som 1 m2 överyta av platta inklusive kantförband) presterar träbaserade system tydligt bättre än RC över de flesta indikatorer; för GWP var CLT-lösningar tio gånger lägre än RC. Bland limfria CLT-paneler är AFCLT2 genomgående lösningen med lägst påverkan, medan AFCLT3 är högst bland de limfria alternativen på grund av hög massa. Vidare påverkar känslighetsanalys för elmix storleken på miljöprestandan men inte rangordningen.

Avhandlingens bidrag är: (i) en validerad modellerings- och provningsgrund för sex förbandsfamiljer; (ii) handlingsbara designregler med kvantifierade känsligheter för geometri, dymlingsstorlek/antal och plåtlayout; samt (iii) ett LCA-ramverk som kopplar förbandsval till cradle-to-cradle-utfall, inklusive effekter av elmix och EOL. Resultaten ger konstruktörer och standardiseringsaktörer limfria CLT-bjälklag som är robusta, reparerbara och kompatibla med cirkulärt byggande, och tillhandahåller en mall för optimering av strukturell och miljömässig prestanda i framtida stommar av massivt trä.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Gävle: Högskolan i Gävle, 2026. p. 90
Series
Doctoral thesis ; 74
Keywords
Cross-laminated timber, glued-laminated timber, adhesive-free connections, four-point bending, finite element modeling, life cycle assessment, global warming potential, environmental impact, Korslimmat trä, limträ, limfria förband, fyrpunktsböjning, finita element-modellering, livscykelanalys, global uppvärmningspotential, miljöpåverkan
National Category
Building materials
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-49495 (URN)978-91-89593-95-4 (ISBN)978-91-89593-96-1 (ISBN)
Public defence
2026-05-21, 99:133, Kungsbäcksvägen 47, Gävle, 09:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2026-04-29 Created: 2026-03-10 Last updated: 2026-04-29

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Honghao, RenBahrami, AlirezaCehlin, MathiasWallhagen, Marita

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