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Cooling of Duplex Stainless‐Steel Bars With Different Water and Air Impinging Jet Flow Rates
University of Gävle, Faculty of Engineering and Sustainable Development, Department of Building Engineering, Energy Systems and Sustainability Science, Energy Systems and Building Technology. Division of Engineering Materials, Department of Management and Engineering Linköping University Linköping Sweden.ORCID iD: 0000-0001-7026-531X
University of Gävle, Faculty of Engineering and Sustainable Development, Department of Building Engineering, Energy Systems and Sustainability Science, Energy Systems and Building Technology.
Ericsson AB Kista Sweden.
Outokumpu Stainless AB Degerfors Sweden.
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2025 (English)In: Engineering Reports, E-ISSN 2577-8196, Vol. 7, no 4, article id e70132Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Super duplex stainless steel (SDSS), known for its high corrosion resistance and mechanical properties, is widely used in applications in aggressive environments, such as marine and petrochemical industries. However, intermetallic precipitates may form during cooling from high temperatures, detrimentally affecting the steel's properties, especially its impact toughness. Since cooling after solution annealing is a key step in production to obtain a precipitation-free component, it is important to understand to what extent the cooling process can be optimized and adjusted in terms of cooling rates and their effect on the quality of steel. The aim of this study is to study the effect of cooling rate on the quality of SDSS. For this purpose, the Impinging Jet Quenching Technique (IJQT) was employed to perform continuous and controlled cooling of 80 mm diameter SDSS 2507 solid bars with water and air jets of different flow rates to cover a wide range of cooling rates. The bars were analyzed through microstructure analysis using a scanning electron microscope, hardness tests, impact toughness tests, and fracture surface observations using a stereo light microscope. The results showed a consistent decrease in impact toughness throughout the tests with decreasing cooling capacity, which facilitated the σ-phase precipitation. 

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Wiley , 2025. Vol. 7, no 4, article id e70132
Keywords [en]
air cooling rate; impact toughness; impinging jet quenching; super duplex stainless steel
National Category
Civil Engineering
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-46838DOI: 10.1002/eng2.70132ISI: 001477505800005Scopus ID: 2-s2.0-105003191432OAI: oai:DiVA.org:hig-46838DiVA, id: diva2:1956130
Funder
Knowledge Foundation, 20190066Available from: 2025-05-05 Created: 2025-05-05 Last updated: 2026-02-27Bibliographically approved
In thesis
1. Cooling of Steel Components with Impinging Jet Quenching Technique: The Effect of Continuous and Differential Cooling on Material Properties and Microstructure
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Cooling of Steel Components with Impinging Jet Quenching Technique: The Effect of Continuous and Differential Cooling on Material Properties and Microstructure
2024 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Heat-treatment plays a crucial role in manufacturing and production of steel components since its aim is to provide necessary material properties to fulfil the in-service requirements and comply with the safety measures. Cooling of steel components is a necessary step in heat-treatment and associated with different microstructure manipulations that control the mechanical and other properties, depending on the steel type in question. Common issues of this process, for example in large-scale production of thick bars or in small scale-production of automobile or agricultural steel components, include insufficient cooling rate that leads to poor properties, undesirable residual stresses that may lead to cracks and premature failure, as well as insufficient spatial and temporal control over the quenched sample in case when gradients of mechanical properties are required.  

To avoid the mentioned issues and improve the control during cooling process, a newly developed test rig for Impinging Jet Quenching Technique (IJQT) is used in this thesis to investigate the spatial and temporal behavior of various steel types during different cooling routes. The study is focused on two main cases: continuous cooling of solid cylindrical bars and differential cooling of thick plates. The continuous cooling of bars involves water quench-hardening of low-alloyed carbon steel and different cooling routes of super duplex stainless-steel. The differential cooling of plates involves cooling of different types of carbon steels with various hardenability levels using water and compressed air. The work includes an accurate temperature recording from cooling experiments and metallurgical characterizations for validation of cooling simulation models.  

The results from continuous cooling case showed that martensite hardening of carbon steel bars with water jets can be controlled using IJQT and correlate well with the simulation model which is validated by hardness measurements, microstructure observations and residual stress analysis. Cooling of the duplex stainless-steel bars and their metallurgical characterizations as well as impact toughness results show the technique’s high flexibility and control over temperature evolutions during both water and compressed air cooling. The study of continuous cooling using IJQT in this thesis clearly demonstrates its high potential to be used for other sizes and geometries.  

The results from differential cooling case show that IJQT is flexible enough to provide a wide range of simultaneous cooling rates along the steel plates of different carbon content using both water jets and air jets resulting in various microstructure and hardness gradients. For 0.38-mass% C steel the gradient includes fully martensitic condition with high hardness level transitioning to a slightly softer bainitic region. For the 0.27-mass% C steel the gradient includes almost fully hardened state smoothly transitioning to a soft pearlitic region covering a wide range of hardness levels within a component. The results from physical experiments on differential quenching facilitated further modelling approach for exploring carbon steels in terms of their applicability for microstructure- and hardness gradient formation using different cooling strategies.  

The research in this thesis provides a deeper understanding of how microstructures and properties of steel components can be manipulated using IJQT to achieve specific requirements depending on the steel type in question. In long term, it is believed that the approach used in this thesis will contribute to the development and establishment of an advanced digital tool for optimal selection of alloys and corresponding cooling strategies thus reducing the experimental time and unnecessary emissions. 

Abstract [sv]

Värmebehandling spelar en avgörande roll vid tillverkning och produktion av stålkomponenter eftersom dess syfte är att tillhandahålla nödvändiga materialegenskaper för att uppfylla driftkraven och säkerhetsåtgärderna. Kylning av stålkomponenter är ett nödvändigt steg i värmebehandlingen och förknippat med olika mikrostrukturmanipulationer som styr de mekaniska och andra egenskaperna, beroende på vilken ståltyp det gäller. Vanliga problem med denna process, till exempel vid storskalig produktion av tjocka stänger eller vid småskalig produktion av bil- eller jordbruksstålkomponenter, inkluderar otillräcklig kylhastighet som leder till otillräckliga egenskaper, oönskade restspänningar som kan leda till sprickor och för tidigt brott, såväl som otillräcklig rumslig och tidsmässig kontroll över det släckta provet i fall då gradienter av mekaniska egenskaper krävs.  

För att undvika de nämnda problemen och förbättra kontrollen under kylningsprocessen, används en nyutvecklad testrigg för Impinging Jet Quenching Technique (IJQT) i denna avhandling för att undersöka det rumsliga och tidsmässiga beteendet hos olika ståltyper under olika kylvägar. Studien är fokuserad på två huvudfall: kontinuerlig kylning av cylindriska stänger och differentiell kylning av tjocka plåtar. Den kontinuerliga kylningen av stänger involverar vattenhärdning av låglegerat kolstål och olika kylvägar av superduplext rostfritt stål. Den differentiella kylningen av plåtar innebär kylning av olika typer av kolstål med olika härdbarhetsnivåer med hjälp av vatten och tryckluft. Arbetet inkluderar en noggrann temperaturregistrering från kylexperiment och metallurgiska karakteriseringar för validering av kylsimuleringsmodeller.  

Resultaten från kontinuerligt kylningsfall visade att martensithärdning av kolstålsstänger med vattenstrålar kan kontrolleras med IJQT och korrelerar väl med simuleringsmodellen som valideras genom hårdhetsmätningar, mikrostrukturobservationer och restspänningsanalys. Kylning av duplexstängerna av rostfritt stål och deras metallurgiska egenskaper samt resultat av slagseghetstester visar teknikens höga flexibilitet och kontroll över temperaturutvecklingen under både vatten- och tryckluftkylning. Studiet av kontinuerlig kylning med IJQT i denna avhandling visar tydligt dess höga potential att användas för andra storlekar och geometrier.  

Resultaten från differentiell kylning visar att IJQT är tillräckligt flexibel för att tillhandahålla ett brett utbud av samtidiga kylningshastigheter längs stålplåtarna med olika kolhalter genom att använda både vattenstrålar och luftstrålar, vilket resulterar i olika mikrostruktur- och hårdhetsgradienter. För 0.38 mass% C stål inkluderar gradienten helt martensitiskt tillstånd med hög hårdhetsnivå som övergår till ett något mjukare bainitisktt område. För 0.27 mass% C stål inkluderar gradienten nästan helt härdat tillstånd som smidigt övergår till ett mjukt perlitiskt område som täcker ett brett spektrum av hårdhetsnivåer inom en komponent. Resultaten från fysikaliska experiment på differentiell härdning underlättade ytterligare modelleringsmetoder för att utforska kolstål i termer av deras tillämpbarhet för mikrostruktur- och hårdhetsgradientsbildning med hjälp av olika kylningsstrategier.  

Forskningen i denna avhandling ger en djupare förståelse för hur mikrostrukturer och egenskaper hos stålkomponenter kan manipuleras med IJQT för att uppnå specifika krav beroende på vilken ståltyp det gäller. På lång sikt är förhoppningen att det tillvägagångssättet som används i denna avhandling kommer att bidra till utvecklingen och etableringen av ett avancerat digitalt verktyg för optimalt val av legeringar och motsvarande kylningsstrategier, vilket minskar experimenttiden och onödiga utsläpp. 

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Linköping: Linköping University Electronic Press, 2024. p. 50
National Category
Mechanical Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hig:diva-49427 (URN)10.3384/9789180758185 (DOI)9789180758178 (ISBN)9789180758185 (ISBN)
Public defence
2024-10-25, ACAS, A-building, Campus Valla, 10:15 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Note

Funding: Sweden’s Innovation Agency Vinnova, Swedish Knowledge Foundation, Swedish Agency for Economic and Regional Growth, SSAB, Väderstad Components, Outokumpu, and University of Gävle (UoG)

Available from: 2026-02-27 Created: 2026-02-27 Last updated: 2026-02-27Bibliographically approved

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Romanov, PavelGebeyaw, Getiye WodajeMoshfegh, BahramCalmunger, Mattias

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